Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Best Laid Plans: Planning Skill Determines the Effectiveness of Action Plans and Implementation Intentions

  • Brief Report
  • Published:
Annals of Behavioral Medicine

Abstract

Background

Theories of action control emphasise the importance of planning, but plans are not universally beneficial.

Purpose

The present study investigates whether the effectiveness of plans depends upon the skill of the planner.

Methods

Study 1 prospectively predicted changes in unhealthy snacking behaviour over 1 week from intentions, action planning and performance on a standardised cognitive test of planning skill (n = 72). Study 2 experimentally randomised skilled and poor planners to receive (or not) a planning intervention before completing an online food diary (n = 144)

Results

Spontaneously generated action plans about snacking explained significantly more variance in subsequent snacking if produced by a skilled rather than a poor planner. The planning intervention (implementation intention) significantly improved goal attainment but only in poor planners.

Conclusions

Plans are only as good as the people who make them. Poor planners’ plans do not help achieve goals. Planning interventions can compensate for a lack of planning skill.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  1. Ajzen I. The theory of planned behaviour. Organ Behav Hum. 1991;50:179-211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Orbell S, Sheeran P. “Inclined abstainers”: A problem for predicting health-related behaviour. Brit J Soc Psychol. 1998;37:151-165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Schwarzer R. Self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of health behaviors: Theoretical approaches and a new model. In: Schwarzer R, ed. Self-efficacy: Thought Control of Action. Washington, DC: Hemisphere; 1992:217-242.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Leventhal H, Singer R, Jones S. Effects of fear and specificity of recommendation upon attitudes and behaviour. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1965;34:20-29.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Gollwitzer PM. Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. Am Psychol. 1999;54:493-503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Sniehotta FF, Scholz U, Schwarzer R. Action plans and coping plans for physical exercise: A longitudinal intervention study in cardiac rehabilitation. Brit J Health Psych. 2006;11:23-37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Verplanken B, Faes S. Good intentions, bad habits and the effects of forming implementation intentions on behaviour. Eur J Soc Psychol. 1999;29:591-604.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Luszczynska A, Schwarzer R. Planning and self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of breast self-examination: A longitudinal study on self-regulatory cognitions. Psychol Health. 2003;18:93-108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Armitage CJ. Effectiveness of experimenter-provided and self-generated implementation intentions to reduce alcohol consumption in a sample of the general population: A randomized exploratory trial. Health Psychol. 2009;28:545-553.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Norman P, Conner M. The Theory of Planned Behavior and exercise: Evidence for the mediating and moderating roles of planning on intention-behavior relationships. J Sport Exercise Psy. 2005;27:488-504.

    Google Scholar 

  11. White KM, Terry DJ, Hogg MA. Safe sex behaviour: The role of attitudes, norms and control factors. J Appl Soc Psychol. 1994;24:2164-2169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Jackson C, Lawton R, Knapp P, et al. Beyond intention: Do specific plans increase health behaviours in patients in primary care? A study of fruit and vegetable consumption. Soc Sci Med. 2005;60:2383-2391.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Michie S, Dormandy E, Marteau TM. Increasing screening uptake amongst those intending to be screened: The use of action plans. Patient Educ Couns. 2004;55:218-222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Rutter DR, Steadman L, Quine L. An implementation intentions intervention to increase uptake of mammography. Ann Behav Med. 2006;32:127-134.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Wiedemann AU, Schüz B, Sniehotta FF, Scholz U, Schwarzer R. Disentangling the relation between intentions, planning, and behaviour: A moderated mediation analysis. Psychol Health. 2009;24:67-79.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Owen A. Cognitive planning in humans: Neuropsychological, neuro anatomical and neuropharmalogical perspectives. Prog Neurobiol. 1997;53:431-450.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Allain P, Nicoleau S, Pinon K, et al. Executive functioning in normal aging: A study of action planning using the Zoo Map Test. Brain Cognition. 2005;57:4-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Brennan M, Welsh MC, Fisher CB. Aging and executive function skills: An examination of a community-dwelling older adult population. Percept Motor Skill. 1997;83:1187-1191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Godbout L, Doucet C, Fiola MJ. The scripting of activities of daily living in normal aging: Anticipation and shifting deficits with preservation of sequencing. Brain Cognition. 2000;43:220-224.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Soper DS. A priori sample size calculator for multiple regression (Online Software). Available at http://www.danielsoper.com/statcalc. Accessed 5th March 2012.

  21. Bell AC, Kremer PJ, Magarey AM, Swinburn BA. Contribution of ‘noncore’ foods and beverages to the energy intake and weight status of Australian children. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59:639-645.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Wilson BA, Alderman N, Burgess PW, Emslie H, Evans JJ. Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome. Bury St Edmunds, UK: Thames Valley Test Company; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Norris G, Tate RL. The behavioural assessment of the dysexecutive syndrome (BADS): Ecological, concurrent and construct validity. Neuropsychol Rehabil. 2000;10:33-45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Aiken LS, West SG. Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Stelzl I. What sample sizes are needed to get correct significance levels for log-linear models? A Monte Carlo study using the SPSS-procedure “Hiloglinear”. Meth Psych Res. 2000;5:95-116.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Delis D, Kaplan E, Kramer N. Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System. Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Jurado MB, Rosselli M. The elusive nature of executive functions: A review of our current understanding. Neuropsychol Rev. 2007;17:213-233.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Allan JL, Johnston M, Campbell NC. Missed by an inch or a mile? Predicting size of intention–behaviour gap from measures of executive control. Psychol Health. 2011;26:635-650.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Hinkin CH, Castellon SA, Durvasula RS, et al. Medication adherence among HIV+ adults, effects of cognitive dysfunction and regimen complexity. Neurology. 2002;59:1944-1950.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Hall PA. Executive control resources and frequency of fatty food consumption: Findings from an age-stratified community sample. Health Psych. 2012;31:235-241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Norman DA, Shallice T. Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behaviour. In: Davidson RJ, Schwartz GE, Shapiro D, eds. Consciousness and Self-Regulation: Advances in Research and Theory. New York: Plenum; 1986:1-18.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  32. Gawrilow C, Gollwitzer PM. Implementation intentions facilitate response inhibition in ADHD children. Cognitive Ther Res. 2008;32:261-280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Lengfelder A, Gollwitzer PM. Reflective and reflexive action control in patients with frontal brain lesions. Neuropsychology. 2011;15:80-100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Brandstätter V, Lengfelder A, Gollwitzer PM. Implementation intentions and efficient action initiation. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2001;81:946-960.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Cohen A-L, Bayer UC, Jaudas A, Gollwitzer PM. Self-regulatory strategy and executive control: Implementation intentions modulate task switching and Simon task performance. Psychol Res. 2008;72:12-26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Chasteen AL, Park DC, Schwarz N. Implementation intentions and facilitation of prospective memory. Psychol Sci. 2001;12:457-461.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Webb TL, Sheeran P. Can implementation intentions help to overcome ego-depletion? J Exp Soc Psychol. 2003;39:279-286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflict of interest to disclose.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Health Psychology, Institute of Applied Health Sciences, Health Sciences Building, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, AB25 2ZD, UK

    Julia L. Allan Ph.D.

  2. Institute of Health & Society, Newcastle University, Tyne and Wear, UK

    Falko F. Sniehotta Ph.D.

  3. Institute of Applied Health Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

    Marie Johnston Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Julia L. Allan Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Falko F. Sniehotta Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Marie Johnston Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Julia L. Allan Ph.D..

About this article

Cite this article

Allan, J.L., Sniehotta, F.F. & Johnston, M. The Best Laid Plans: Planning Skill Determines the Effectiveness of Action Plans and Implementation Intentions. ann. behav. med. 46, 114–120 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-013-9483-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-013-9483-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation