Abstract
This study explores how Greek lesbian women envision parenthood and the motives that lie within their desire to have children. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was used to illustrate the inner experience of the participants, through analyzing the data obtained through individual interviews with 12 lesbian women. The analysis revealed three overarching themes: a) towards the prospect of remaining childless, b) being less confident about parenting skills, and c) dual rejection. This study’s results show that in a cultural context that promotes and advocates parenthood the prospect of remaining childless together with internalized heterosexism, can be significant expressions of minority stress, that challenge participants' desires and comfort with parenthood. This study emphasizes the need to avoid oversimplified and static explanations for lesbian women’s desire for parenthood and consider their choices within a wider and multifaceted context.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen, S. H., & Mendez, S. N. (2018). Hegemonic Heteronormativity: Toward a New Era of Queer Family Theory. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10(1), 70–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12241
Avery, A., Chase, J., Johansson, L., Litvak, S., Montero, D., & Wydra, M. (2007). America’s changing attitudes toward homosexuality, civil unions, and same gendered marriage: 1977–2004. Social Work, 52(1), 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/52.1.71
Baiocco, R., Argalia, M., & Laghi, F. (2012). The Desire to Marry and Attitudes Toward Same-Sex Family Legalization in a Sample of Italian Lesbians and Gay Men. Journal of Family Issues, 35(2), 181–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x12464872
Baiocco, R., Nardelli, N., Pezzuti, L., & Lingiardi, V. (2013). Attitudes of Italian Heterosexual Older Adults Towards Lesbian and Gay Parenting. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 10(4), 285–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-013-0129-2
Baiocco, R., Santamaria, F., Ioverno, S., Fontanesi, L., Baumgartner, E., Laghi, F., & Lingiardi, V. (2015). Lesbian mother families and gay father families in Italy: Family functioning, dyadic satisfaction, and child well-being. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 12(3), 202–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-015-0185-x
Baiocco, R., & Laghi, F. (2013). Sexual orientation and the desires and intentions to become parents. Journal of Family Studies, 19(1), 90–98. https://doi.org/10.5172/jfs.2013.19.1.90
Barriball, L. K., & While, A. (1994). Collecting data using a semi-structured interview: A discussion paper. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 19(2), 328–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.1994.tb01088.x
Berkowitz, D. (2009a). Theorizing lesbian and gay parenting: Past, present, and future scholarship. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 1, 117–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-2589.2009.00017.x
Bergman, K., Rubio, R. J., Green, R.-J., & Padrón, E. (2010). Gay Men Who Become Fathers via Surrogacy: The Transition to Parenthood. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 6(2), 111–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/15504281003704942
Berkowitz, D. (2009b). Theorizing Lesbian and Gay Parenting: Past, Present, and Future Scholarship. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 1(3), 117–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-2589.2009.00017.x
Bos, H. M., van Balen, F., & van den Boom, D. C. (2003). Planned lesbian families: Their desire and motivation to have children. Human Reproduction (oxford, England), 18(10), 2216–2224. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deg427
Bos, H. M., van Balen, F., & van den Boom, D. C. (2007). Child adjustment and parenting in planned lesbian-parent families. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(1), 38–48. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.77.1.38
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners. Sage.
Brocki, J. M., & Wearden, A. J. (2006). A critical evaluation of the use of interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) in health psychology. Psychology & Health, 21(1), 87–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/14768320500230185
Carneiro, F. A., Tasker, F., Salinas-Quiroz, F., Leal, I., & Costa, P. A. (2017). Are the fathers alright? A systematic and critical review of studies on gay and bisexual fatherhood. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1636. https://doi.org/10.3389/spsyg.2017.01636
Clarke, V., Ellis, S., Peel, E., & Riggs, D. W. (2010). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and queer psychology: An introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Clisby, S., & Holdsworth, J. (2014). Gendering women: Identity and mental wellbeing through the lifecourse. Bristol, UK; Chicago, IL, USA: Bristol University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1t89cmb
Coontz, S. (2006). Marriage, a history: How love conquered marriage. Penguin.
Crespi, L. (2001). And baby makes three: A dynamic look at development andconflict in lesbian families. In D. F. Glazer & J. Drescher (Eds.), Gay and Lesbian Parenting (pp. 7–30). London, UK: The Haworth Press.
D’Augelli, A. R., Rendina, H. J., Sinclair, K. O., & Grossman, A. H. (2007). Lesbian and gay youth’s aspirations for marriage and raising children. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 1(4), 77–98. https://doi.org/10.1300/J462v01n04_06
diaNEOsis Survey. (2017). “What Greeks Believe in 2017.” DiaNEOsis. https://www.dianeosis.org/en/2017/04/greeks-believe-in-2017/. Accessed 8 April 2020
Doyle, J., Pooley, J. A., & Breen, L. (2013). A phenomenological exploration of the childfree choice in a sample of Australian women. Journal of Health Psychology, 18(3), 397–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105312444647
Fantus, S., & Newman, P. A. (2019). Motivations to pursue surrogacy for gay fathers in Canada: a qualitative investigation. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428x.2018.1546156
Farr, R. H., & Patterson, C. J. (2013). Coparenting among lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples: Associations with adopted children’s outcomes. Child Development, 84(4), 1226–1240. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12046
Flaks, D. K., Ficher, I., Masterpasqua, F., & Joseph, G. (1995). Lesbians choosing motherhood: A comparative study of lesbian and heterosexual parents and their children. Developmental Psychology, 31(1), 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.105
Gato, J., Leal, D., Coimbra, S., & Tasker, F. (2020). Anticipating Parenthood Among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Young Adults Without Children in Portugal: Predictors and Profiles. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1058. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01058
Gato, J., Santos, S., &Fontaine, A. M. (2017). To have or not to have children? That is the question. Factors influencing parental decisions among lesbians and gay men. Sexuality Research & Social Policy: A Journal of the NSRC, 14(3), 310–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-016-0268-3
Glazer, D. (2014). LGBT Transitions to Parenthood. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 18(2), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2014.883668
Giunti, D., & Fioravanti, G. (2017). Gay Men and Lesbian Women Who Become Parents in the Context of a Former Heterosexual Relationship: An Explorative Study in Italy. Journal of Homosexuality, 64(4), 523–537. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2016.1191244
Goldberg, A. E. (2010). Lesbian and gay parents and their children: Research on the family life cycle. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12055-000
Goldberg, A., Downing, J. B., & Moyer, A. M. (2012). Why parenthood, and why now? Gay men’s motivations for pursuing parenthood. Family Relations, 61(1), 157–174. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729-2011.00687.x
Green, M. S., Murphy, M. J., Blumer, M., & Palmanteer, D. (2009). Marriage and family therapists’ comfort level working with gay and lesbian individuals, couples, and families. American Journal of Family Therapy, 37(2), 159–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926180701441429
Greenfeld, D., & Seli, E. (2011). Gay men choosing parenthood through assisted reproduction: Medical and psychosocial considerations. Fertility and Sterility, 95(1), 225–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.05.05310.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.05.053
Grigoropoulos, I.(2018). Attitudes Toward Same-Sex Marriage in a Greek Sample. Sexuality & Culture. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-018-9565-8
Hayfield, N., Terry, G., Clarke, V., & Ellis, S. (2019). “Never Say Never?” Heterosexual, Bisexual, and Lesbian Women’s Accounts of Being Childfree. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(4), 526–538. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684319863414
Iraklis, G. (2021). Lesbian mothers' perceptions and experiences of their school involvement. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2537
Kantsa, V. (2014). The Price of Marriage: Same-Sex Sexualities and Citizenship in Greece. Sexualities, 17, 818–836. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1363460714544807
Kantsa, V., & Chalkidou, A. (2014). ‘Same-Sex Mothers’: A Contradiction in Terms? Sexuality and Reproduction from an Anthropological Perspective. In M. Kaifa-Gbanti, E. Kounougeri-Manoledaki, & E. Symeonidou-Kastanidou (Eds.), Assisted Reproduction and Alternative Family Forms (pp. 180–205). Athens-Thessaloniki: Sakkoulas.
Langdridge, D., Connolly, K., & Sheeran, P. (2000). Reasons for wanting a child: A network analytic study. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 18(4), 321–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/713683044
Leal, D., Gato, J., & Tasker, F. (2019). Prospective parenting: Sexual identity and intercultural trajectories. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 21(7), 757–773. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2018.1515987
Lipka, M. (2019).'Greek attitudes toward religion, minorities align more with Central and Eastern Europe than West'. USA: Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/09/22/greek-attitudes-toward-religionminorities-align-more-with-central-and-eastern-europe-than-west/. Accessed 26 Nov
McGuire, J. K., Doty, J. L., Catalpa, J. M., & Ola, C. (2016). Body image in transgender young people: Findings from a qualitative, community based study. Body Image, 18, 96–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.06.004
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
Meyer, I. H. (2016). Does an improved social environment for sexual and gender minorities have implications for a new minority stress research agenda? Psychology of sexualities review, 7(1), 81–90.
Milbank, J. (2003). From here to maternity: A review of the research on lesbian andgay families. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 38, 541–600. http://www.aspa.org.au/publications/ajsi.html. Accessed 19 May 2020
Miscioscia, M., Blavier, A., Pagone, P. R., & Simonelli, A. (2017). The Desire of Parenthood: Intuitive Co-parental Behaviors and Quality of Couple Relationship among Italian and Belgian Same-Sex and Opposite-Sex Couples. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 110. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00110
Obedin-Maliver, J., & Makadon, H. J. (2015). Transgender Men and Pregnancy. Obstetric Medicine, 9(1), 4–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/1753495x15612658
Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2013). Purposeful Sampling for Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis in Mixed Method Implementation Research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y
Page, A. D., & Peacock, J. R. (2013). Negotiating Identities in a Heteronormative Context. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(4), 639–654. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2012.724632
Peplau, L. A., & Fingerhut, A. W. (2007). The close relationships of Lesbians and gay men. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 405–424. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085701
Potter, J., & Hepburn, A. (2005). Qualitative interviews in psychology: Problems and possibilities. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2(4), 281–307. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088705qp045oa
Riskind, R. G., & Patterson, C. J. (2010). Parenting intentions and desires among childless lesbian, gay, and heterosexual individuals. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(1), 78–81. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017941
Robinson, M. A., & Brewster, M. E. (2014). Motivations for fatherhood: Examining internalized heterosexism and gender-role conflictwith childless gay and bisexual men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 15, 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031142
Salinas-Quiroz, F., Costa, P. A., & Lozano-Verduzco, I. (2019). Parenting aspiration among diverse sexual orientations and gender identities in Mexico, and its association with internalized homo/transnegativity and connectedness to the LGBTQ Community. Journal of Family Issues, 0192513X1988167. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x19881675
Scandurra, C., Bacchini, D., Esposito, C., Bochicchio, V., Valerio, P., & Amodeo, A. L. (2019). The influence of minority stress, gender, and legalization of civil unions on parenting desire and intention in lesbian women and gay men: Implications for social policy and clinical practice. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 15(1), 76–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2017.1410460
Silverman, D. (2013). Doing qualitative research (4th ed.). SAGE.
Smith, J. A. (1999). Identity development during the transition to motherhood: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 17(3), 281–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646839908404595
Smith, J. A., & Osborn, M. (2003). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods (pp. 51–80). Sage Publications Inc.
Smith, J. A., & Eatough, V. (2006). ‘Interpretative phenomenological analysis.’ In G. Breakwell, C. Fife-Schaw, S. Hammond, & J. A. Smith (Eds.), Research Methods in Psychology (pp. 322–341), (3rd edn). London: Sage.
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressionsin everyday life-Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62, 271–286.
Spidsberg, B. D. (2007). Vulnerable and strong – lesbian women encountering maternity care. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 60(5), 478–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04439.x
Tate, D. P., & Patterson, C. J. (2019). Desire for Parenthood in Context of Other Life Aspirations Among Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Young Adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2679. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02679
Telingator, C. J. (2013). Clinical work with children and adolescents growing up with lesbian, gay, and bisexual parents. In A. E. Goldberg & K. R. Allen (Eds.), LGBT-parent families. Innovations in research and implications for practice. New York: Springer.
van Balen, F., & Trimbos-Kemper, T. C. (1995). Involuntarily childless couples: Their desire to have children and their motives. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 16(3), 137–144. https://doi.org/10.3109/01674829509024462
Van de Meerendonk, B., & Scheepers, P. (2004). Denial of equal civil rights for lesbians and gay men in the Netherlands, 1980–1993. Journal of Homosexuality, 47(2), 63–80. https://doi.org/10.1300/j082v47n02_04
Voultsos, P., Zymvragou, C.-E., Raikos, N., &Spiliopoulou, C. C. (2018). Lesbians’ experiences and attitudes towards parenthood in Greece. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2018.1442021
Voultsos, P., Zymvragou, C. E., Karakasi, M. V., & Pavlidis, P. (2021). A qualitative study examining transgender people’s attitudes towards having a child to whom they are genetically related and pursuing fertility treatments in Greece. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 378. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10422-7
Weeks, J., Heaphy, B., & Donovan, C. (2001). Same Sex Intimacies Familiesof Choice and Other Life Experiments. London, UK: Routledge.
Acknowledgements
Researchers would like to thank all participants and acknowledge the support of Ms. Stella Belia and “Rainbow families” Greece. The present work was conducted as part of the post-doctorate research fellowship of the author at the Department of Psychology of the Panteion University of Athens under the supervision of Prof. P. Kordoutis.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Disclosure statement
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval
‘All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordancewith the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.’
Informed consent
‘Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.’
Additional information
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Grigoropoulos Iraklis earned his PhD in Social Psychology from Aristotle University
Greece M.Sc. in developmental psychopathology- Medical school Aristotle University Greece and M.Sc. in counselling psychology—Manchester Metropolitan University UK.
Degree in Psychology—Aristotle University Greece.
He serves as a full time EDIP in the Early Childhood Education and Care Department of International Hellenic University teaching psychology courses at the undergraduate and postgraduate level
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Iraklis, G. Lesbian motherhood desires and challenges due to minority stress. Curr Psychol 42, 11133–11142 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02376-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02376-1