Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Anti-Japanese Popular Nationalism and China’s Approach Towards Japan amid Sino-Japanese Political Tension, 2001–2006

  • Published:
East Asia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper explores the relationship between anti-Japanese popular nationalism and China’s approach towards Japan amid Sino-Japanese political tension from 2001 to mid-2006. Among various factors that may affect the relationship, this research focuses on the interaction between the government and the public expressions of anti-Japanese nationalism in China. Throughout most of this period, Sino-Japanese political relations were seriously strained by historical, territorial and other controversial issues, which stirred up anti-Japanese sentiment in China. However, it was only between 2003 and the spring of 2005 that mass anti-Japanese protests were allowed, or at least tolerated, by the Chinese authorities and played a role in Beijing’s handling of Japan-related controversies. The paper examines China’s domestic political situation during the leadership transition from the third to fourth generation of leaders, which it claims drove the Chinese government’s lenient response to popular anti-Japanese protests and enhanced the prospects for popular nationalism to affect the government’s approach towards Japan.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. This definition is based on Katzenstein & Keohane’s definition of anti-Americanism ([21], p.12).

  2. “Japan pressured over Taiwan visit,” BBC News, April 16, 2001

  3. “Anger over Japan PM’s shrine visit,” BBC News, August 13, 2001; “Japanese blame Koizumi for chilly ties,” China Daily, April 26, 2006; Junbo Jian “Why history matters,” Asia Times, November 29, 2006.

  4. “The Japanese side hopes Sino-Japanese summit talks but the Yasukuni Shrine issue is the primary obstacle,” Global Times, November 19, 2004: http://www.people.com.cn/GB/guoji/14549/3007373.html

  5. Jonathan Watts “Violence flares as the Chinese rage at Japan,” The Guardian, April 17, 2005

  6. “China says ties with Japan at lowest point for 30 years,” Agence France-Presse, April 19, 2005

  7. Norimitsu Onishi “Japanese demand apology from China,” The New York Times, April 11, 2005; Joseph Kahn “Chinese Official Orders End to Anti-Japanese Demonstrations,” The New York Times, April 20, 2005.

  8. “Vice Premier Wu Yi cancels meeting with Koizumi,” China Daily, May 24, 2005

  9. “China, S. Korea protest Koizumi’s shrine visit,” China Daily, October 17, 2005

  10. “Chinese President Meets Japanese PM,” Xinhua News Agency, October 9, 2006

  11. The three public opinion surveys on Sino-Japanese relations were conducted by the Institute of Japanese Studies (IJS), Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS), respectively in 2002, 2004, and 2006. They used random sampling. 1) Dates of Survey: September–October, 2002; Sample Size: 3157 respondents (response rate: 92.9 %); Regions: Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Herongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Shanxi, Shanxi, Gansu, Henan, Jiangsu, Hubei, Guangdong, Hainan, etc. For more details, see [15]; 2) Dates of Survey: September–October, 2004; Sample Size: 2987 respondents (response rate: 90.5 %); Regions: Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Herongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Hebei, Shanxi, Henan, Jiangsu, Zejiang, Sichuan, Guangdong, Yunnan, etc. For more details, see [16]; 3) Dates of Survey: September–October, 2006; Sample Size: 3915 respondents (response rate: 96.3 %); Regions: Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Chongqing, Hebei, Shanxi, Neimenggu, Herongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Shandong, Jiangsu, Zejiang, Pujian, Jiangxi, Henan, Guangdong, Hubei, Hainan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Ningxia, Shanxi, etc. For more details, see [17].

  12. The two public opinion surveys were conducted by Dong-A Ilbo of Korea in 2001 and 2005 as part of a joint survey research with Asahi Shimbun of Japan and the Institute of Sociology, CASS. The China parts of the surveys were performed by World Research Centre in the CASS. The Research Centre carried out face-to-face interviews respectively with 1,000 Chinese adults, aged 20 and older (the margin of error is +/−3.1 per cent) in November 21–28, 2001 and with 2,160 Chinese adults, aged 20 and older (the margin of error is +/− 2.1 per cent) in March 15–31, 2005. This paper used a version of Korean translation provided by a Korean major newspaper, Dong-A Ilbo. For details, see “Joint Public Opinion Poll of Korea, The US, Japan and China.” Dong-A Ilbo, December 24, 2001; “Public Opinion Poll: Special Research on Chinese Attitudes toward Japan and Other Nations.” Dong-A Ilbo, April 26, 2005.

  13. “China enraged over Koizumi shrine visit but limits fall-out,” Agence France-Presse, August 14, 2001.

  14. “Asian anger simmers over Japanese war shrine visit,” Agence France-Presse, August 14, 2001.

  15. “Web Petition Stokes Anti-Japan Passions,” The Sydney Morning Herald, March 30, 2005: http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/web-petition-stokes-anti-japan-passions; John Chan, “Anti-Japanese Protests Erupt in China,” World Socialist Web Site, April 8, 2005: http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/apr2005/chin-a08.shtml; Edward Cody “New Anti-Japanese Protests Erupt in China,” Washington Post, April 16, 2005.

  16. Anthony Faiola , “Japanese Schoolbooks Anger S. Korea, China,” Washington Post, April 6, 2005.

  17. Philip P. Pan, “Youth Attack Japan’s Embassy in China,” Washington Post, April 10, 2005; “Embassy attacked as thousands gather in Beijing to demonstrate against Japan,” Agence France Presse, April 9, 2005.

  18. For studies of the key decision-making bodies dealing with foreign and security policy under the fourth generation leadership, see [4, 18, 22].

  19. For an overview of the policy debate on China’s new thinking on Japan, see [2, 5, 11, 19].

  20. Zhibo Lin, “DuiRi guanxi ‘xin siwei’ zhiyi [A Critique of the “New Thinking on Relations with Japan”]” Renmin wang [The People’s Net], July 22, 2003: http://www.people.com.cn/GB/guandian/1036/1978531.html

  21. The author’s interviews with Chinese scholars on foreign affairs of China in December 2010 and with Chinese journalists in December 2010 and in January 2011

  22. “Chinese communist party official urges improvement of Sino-Japanese relationship,” Xinhua General News Service, April 17, 2005; “Chinese FM: friendly coexistence and win-win cooperation only correct choice for China and Japan,” Xinhua General News Service, April 19, 2005; “Commentary: Good Sino-Japanese ties benefit both sides.” Xinhua General News Service, April 21, 2005.

  23. “Hu’s proposal establishes framework for Sino-Japanese relations,” Xinhua General News Service, 25 April 2005; “Action is more important than promise,” People’s Daily, April 25, 2005.

  24. “Former Chinese diplomats on Sino-Japanese relations in campuses,” Xinhua General News Service, April 21, 2005

  25. “CPC orders members to focus on development, maintain stability,” Xinhua General News Service, April 20, 2005.

  26. People’s Daily, April 17, 2005.

  27. “Party Calls for Development, Stability,” Xinhua News Agency, April 21, 2005.

  28. “China’s security department urges people to shun unauthorised marches,” Xinhua General News Service, April 21, 2005.

  29. Jiangjun Niu, “Intensify negotiations on compensation for Japan’s abandoned chemical weapons incident; the odds of success in civil movement are fairly high,” Caijing Shibao [Financial Times], September 6, 2003: http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2003-09-06/07391686999.shtml.

  30. The author’s interview with a senior researcher at the government-sponsored Chinese Institute of International Studies in Beijing in December 2010.

  31. David Fang, “Diaoyu activist pushes boundaries of protest; Tong Zeng’s actions have been criticised for triggering the latest diplomatic crisis,” South China Morning Post, April 13, 2004.

  32. “Anti-Japanese protests push Beijing to take hard line,” Yomiuri Shimbun, March 27, 2004.

  33. “Chinese Premier Says Japan Not Ready for UN Security Council Seat,” The Associated Press, April 12, 2005.

  34. “Rivalries overwhelm debate on U.N council,” China Daily, April 14, 2005.

References

  1. Beal, T., Nozaki, Y. & Yang, J. (2001). Ghosts of the Past: The Japanese History Textbook Controversy. New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies, 3(2): 177–88.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Beukel, Erik (2011). DIIS Report: Popular Nationalism in China and the Sino-Japanese Relationship. Danish Institute for International Studies.

  3. Cabestan, Jean-Pierre (2005). The Many Facets of Chinese Nationalism. China Perspectives, 59. http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/2793

  4. Cabestan, Jean-Pierre (2009). China’s Foreign-and Security-Policy Decision-Making Processes under Hu Jintao. Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 38(3): 63–97.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Chen, Zhimin & Zang, Zhijun (2004). Embracing or Balancing?: China’s Search for a Japan Strategy. International Review (Guoji Wenti Luntan, Shanghai), Autumn 2004.

  6. Cheung, Tai Ming (2001). The influence of the gun: China’s Central Military Commission and its relationship with the military, party, and state decision-making systems. In D. M. Lampton (Ed.), The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, 1978–2000 (pp.61–90). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

  7. Drifte, Reinhard (2008). Japanese-Chinese Territorial Disputes in the East China Sea-between Military Confrontation and Economic Cooperation. LSE Asia Research Centre Working Paper, 24.

  8. Fewsmith, J. & Reosen, S. (2001). The Domestic Context of Chinese Foreign Policy: Does “Public Opinion” Matter? In D. M. Lampton (Ed.), The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, 1978–2000 (pp. 151–187). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

  9. Fewsmith, Joseph (2003). The Sixteenth National Party Congress: The Succession That Didn’t Happen. The China Quarterly, 173: 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Finkelstein, David M. & Kivlehan, Maryanne (2003). China’s Leadership in the 21st Century: The Rise of the Fourth Generation. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe

    Google Scholar 

  11. Gries, Peter Hays (2005). China’s “New Thinking” On Japan. The China Quarterly, 184: 831–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Gries, Peter Hays (2005). Nationalism, Indignation, and China’s Japan Policy. SAIS Review, 25(2): 105–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. He, Yinan (2007). History, Chinese Nationalism and the Emerging Sino-Japanese Conflict. Journal of Contemporary China, 16(50): 1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Hughes, C. R. (2008). Japan in the Politics of Chinese Leadership Legitimacy: Recent Developments in Historical Perspective. Japan Forum, 20(2): 245–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. IJS (CASS). (2002). Diyici zhongri yulun diaocha: 2002nian 9-10yue [The first China–Japan public opinion survey: September–October, 2002]. Riben Xuekan [Japanese Studies], 6: 19–23.

  16. IJS(CASS). (2004). Dierci zhongri yulun diaocha: 2004nian 9-10yue [The second China–Japan public opinion survey: September–October, 2004]. Riben Xuekan [Japanese Studies], 6: 33–38.

  17. IJS(CASS). (2006). Disanci zhongri yulun diaocha: 2006nian 9-10yue [The third China–Japan public opinion survey: September–October, 2006]. Riben Xuekan [Japanese Studies], 6: 27–31.

  18. Jakobson, Linda & Knox, Dean (2010). New Foreign Policy Actors in China. SIPRI Policy Paper, 26.

  19. Jiang, Wenran (2005). China’s “New Thinking” On Japan. China Brief, 5(3).

  20. Jiang, Wenran (2007). New Dynamics of Sino-Japanese Relations. Asian Perspective, 31(1): 15–42.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Katzenstein, Peter J. & Keohane, Robert O. (2007). Anti-Americanisms in World Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Lai, Hongyi (2010). The Domestic Sources of China’s Foreign Policy: Regimes, Leadership, Priorities and Process. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Lai, Hongyi & Kang, Su-Jeong (2012). Economic Development and China’s Foreign Policy. In Emilian Kavalski (Ed.), The Ashgate Research Companion to Chinese Foreign Policy. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Lam, Willy Wo-Lap (2004). Hu Jintao’s Move to Consolidate Power. China Brief, 4(19).

  25. Lam, Willy Wo-Lap (2006). Chinese Politics in the Hu Jintao Era: New Leaders, New Challenges. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Li, Cheng & White, Lynn (2003). The Sixteenth Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party: Hu Gets What? Asian Survey, 43(4): 553–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Li, N. (2002). The Central Military Commission and military policy in China, in James C. Mulvenon and Andrew N. D. Yang (Eds.), The People’s Liberation Army as Organization (pp.45–94). Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. http://www.rand.org/pubs/conf_proceedings/CF182.html

  28. Liu, Guoli (2003). Leadership Transition and Chinese Foreign Policy. Journal of Chinese Political Science, 8(1): 101–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Ma, Licheng (2002). Dui Ri guanxi xinsiwei – ZhongRi minjian zhiyu [New Thinking on China’s relations with Japan: Worries of Chinese and Japanese People]. Zhanlue yu guanli [Strategy and Management], 55(6):41–47.

  30. Miller, Alice L. (2004). Party Politburo Processes under Hu Jintao. China Leadership Monitor, 11.

  31. Miller, Alice L. (2005). With Hu in Charge, Jiang’s at Ease. China Leadership Monitor, 13.

  32. Miller, Alice L. (2005). Hu’s in Charge? China Leadership Monitor, 16.

  33. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the PRC (2005). Foreign Ministry Spokesman Qin Gang’s Press Conference on 12 April 2005. http://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/xwfw/s2510/2511/t191585.htm

  34. Mulvenon, James (2005). The King Is Dead! Long Live the King! The CMC Leadership Transition from Jiang to Hu. China Leadership Monitor, 13.

  35. Pei, Minxin. (2011). Why China’s Crackdown Is Selective, The Diplomat (28 April 2011).

  36. Przystup, James J. (2001). Japan–China relations: Trouble Stats with “T”. Comparative Connection, 3(2): 92–103.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Przystup, James J. (2003). Japan–China relations: Cross Currents. Comparative Connection, 5(1): 101–10.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Przystup, James J. (2004). Japan–China relations: Cross Currents. Comparative Connection, 5(4): 119–32.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Przystup, James J. (2004). Japan–China Relations: Dialogue of the Almost Deaf. Comparative Connections, 6(1): 103–16.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Przystup, James J. (2004). Japan–China Relations: Not Quite All About Sovereignty – but Close. Comparative Connections, 6(2): 123–34.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Przystup, James J. (2006). Japan–China relations: Yasukuni Stops Everything. Comparative Connection, 7(4): 109–22.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Reilly, James (2008). Harmonious World and Public Opinion in China’s Japan Policy. In Sujian Guo & Jean-Marc Blanchard (Eds.), Harmonious World and China’s New Foreign Policy (pp. 189–223). Lanham: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Reilly, James (2011) Strong Society, Smart State: The Rise of Public Opinion in China’s Japan Policy. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Saich, T. (2006). China in 2005: Hu’s in Charge. Asian Survey, 46(1): 37–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Shi, Yinhong (2003). ZhongRi jiein yu ‘waijiao geming’ [China–Japan Rapprochement and “Diplomatic Revolution”]. Zhanlue yu guanli [Strategy and Management], 57(2): 71–75.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Shirk, Susan L. 2007. China: Fragile Superpower. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Sutter, Robert (2002). China and Japan: Trouble ahead? The Washington Quarterly, 25(4): 37–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Tam, Yue-him (2007). Who Engineered the Anti-Japanese Protests in 2005? Macalester International, 18(25): 281–299.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Tang, Wenfang (2005). Public Opinion and Political Change in China. Stanford. CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Wan, Ming. (2006). Sino-Japanese Relations: Interaction, Logic, and Transformation. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Wang, Mingde & Okano-Heijmans, Maaike (2011). Overcoming the Past in Sino-Japanese Relations? The International Spectator: Italian Journal of International Affairs, 46(1): 127–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Wang, Zhengxu (2006). Hu Jintao’s Power Consolidation: Groups, Institutions, and Power Balance in China’s Elite Politics. Issues & Studies, 42(4): 97–136.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Xu, Wu (2007). Chinese Cyber Nationalism: Evolution, Characteristics, and Implications. Lanham, Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Yuan, Jing-Dong (2008). Chinese Nationalism and Sino-Japanese Relations. Pacific Focus, 23(2): 212–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Zhao, Suisheng (2005). Nationalism’s Double Edge. The Wilson Quarterly, 29(4): 76–82.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Zhao, Suisheng (2005). China’s Pragmatic Nationalism: Is It Manageable? Washington Quarterly, 29(1): 131–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Zheng, Yongnian, & Lye, Fook (2003). Elite Politics and the Fourth Generation of Chinese Leadership. Journal of Chinese Political Science, 8(1): 65–86.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Zheng, Yongnian, Wang, Zhengxu and Lye, Liang Fook (2005). China Politics 2005: Promoting a Harmonious Society to Cope with Crisis of Governance. China Policy Institute Briefing Series, (3) (December 2005).

Download references

Acknowledgments

An earlier version of this paper was presented in October 2011 at the Young Scholars & PhD Students Workshop on Contemporary East Asia in Durham and selected for publication by the panel of reviewers. The author wishes to thank Dr David Kerr and other members of the Centre for Contemporary Chinese Studies at Durham University for helpful comments and suggestions. Any remaining errors are those of the author.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Contemporary Chinese Studies, Si Yuan Centre, Jubilee Campus, University of Nottingham, Wollaton Road, Nottingham, NG8 1BB, UK

    Su-Jeong Kang

Authors
  1. Su-Jeong Kang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Su-Jeong Kang.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kang, SJ. Anti-Japanese Popular Nationalism and China’s Approach Towards Japan amid Sino-Japanese Political Tension, 2001–2006. East Asia 30, 161–181 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12140-013-9191-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12140-013-9191-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation