Abstract
In previous studies, we investigated a link between high fluoride exposure and functional IQ deficits in rats. This study is an extension conducted to explore the combined influence of physical exercise and temperature stress on the learning ability and memory in rats and to assess whether any positive modulation could be attenuated due to exercise regimen subjected to F-toxicated animals at different temperatures. Accumulation of ingested fluoride resulted significant inhibition in acetylcholinesterase activity (P < 0.05), plasma cortisol levels (P < 0.05), and impaired the acquisition, performance, latency time, and retention in fluoride-exposed animals. Fluoride-toxicated rats took more number of sessions during the learning phase [F 5, 35 = 19.065; P < 0.05] and post hoc analysis on the number of correct choices revealed that there was a significant effect of treatments [F 5, 30 = 15.763; P < 0.05]; sessions [F 8, 240 = 58.698; P < 0.05]; and also significant difference in the interactions [F 40, 240 = 1.583; P < 0.05]. The latency data also revealed a significant difference between groups [F 5, 30 = 28.085; P < 0.05]; time = [F 8, 240 = 136.314; P < 0.05]; and there was a significant difference in the interactions [F 40, 240 = 2.090; P < 0.05]. In order to ascertain if interdependence between fluoride concentrations and the foregoing free radical parameters, respective correlation coefficients were calculated and results clearly emphasize the positive role of exercise in the promotion of cognitive functions by decreasing fluoride levels in rat hippocampus. A significant recovery in cognitive function was noticed in all the exercised animals due to reduced burden of brain oxidative stress. In comparison to exercise regimens performed at different temperatures, high (35 °C) and low temperatures (20 °C) led to a slower acquisition and poor retention of the task when compared to thermo neutral temperatures (25 and 30 °C). Thus exercise up-regulate antioxidant defenses and promote learning abilities in fluorotic population.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Mahaboob Basha P, Sujitha NS (2012) Combined influence of intermittent exercise and temperature stress on the modulation of fluoride toxicity. Biol Trace Elem Res 148:69–75
Bhatnagar M, Rao P, Saxena A et al (2006) Biochemical changes in brain and other tissues of young adult female mice from fluoride in their drinking water. Fluoride 39:280–284
Mullenix PJ, Denbesten PK, Schunior A, Kernan WJ (1995) Neurotoxicity of sodium fluoride in rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 17:169–177
Zhang Z, Shen X, Xu X (2001) Effect of selenium on the damage of learning memory ability of mice induced by fluoride. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu 30:144–146
Basha M, Rai P, Begum S (2011) Fluoride toxicity and status of serum thyroid hormones, brain histopathology, and learning memory in rats: a multigenerational assessment. Biol Trace Elem Res 144:1083–1094
Griffin ÉW, Mullally S, Foley C, Warmington SA, O’Mara SM, Kelly AM (2011) Aerobic exercise improves hippocampal function and increases BDNF in the serum of young adult males. Physiol Behav 104(5):934–941
During MJ, Cao L (2006) VEGF, a mediator of the effect of experience on hippocampal neurogenesis. Curr Alzheimer Res 3(1):29–33
Radak Z, Toldy A, Szabo Z et al (2006) The effects of training and detraining on memory, neurotrophins and oxidative stress markers in rat brain. Neurochem Int 49:387–392
Das TK, Susheela AK (1991) Chronic fluoride toxicity and pituitary–adrenal function. Environ Sci 1:56–62
Das TK, Susheela AK (1991) Effect of chronic fluoride toxicity on glucocorticoid level in plasma and urine. Fluoride 24(1):23–28
Pittenger C, Duman RS (2008) Stress, depression and neuroplasticity: a convergence of mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology 33:88–109
Rajmjou S, Kjellberg A (1992) Sustained attention and serial responding in heat: mental effort in the control of performance. Aviat Space Environ Med 63:594–601
Hancock PA (1982) Task categorization and the limits of human performance in extreme heat. Aviat Space Environ Med 53:778–784
Nabavi SF, Moghaddam AH, Eslami S, Nabavi SM (2012) Protective effects of curcumin against sodium fluoride-induced toxicity in rat kidneys. Biol Trace Elem Res 145(3):369–374
Sinha M, Manna P, Sil PC (2007) Aqueous extract of the bark of Terminalia arjuna plays a protective role against sodium-fluoride-induced hepatic and renal oxidative stress. J Nat Med 61:251–260
Porsolt RD, Bertin A, Jalfre M (1977) Behavioral despair in mice: a primary screening test for antidepressants. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther 229:327–336
Bures J, Buresova O, Huston JP (1983) Techniques and basic experiments for the study of brain and behavior, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, p p326
Pudek MR (1989) Adrenal hormones. In: Kaplan LA, Pesce AJ (eds) Clinical chemistry theory, analysis and correlation, 2nd edn. 672, St Louis
Ellman GL, Courtney KD, Andres VJR, Feather-Stone RM (1961) A new and rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity. Biochem Pharmacol 7:88–95
Lowry OH, Rosebrough NJ, Farr AL, Randall RJ (1951) Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. J Biol Chem 193:265–275
Xiang Q, Liang Y, Chen L et al (2003) Effect of fluoride in drinking water on children’s intelligence. Fluoride 36:84–94
Sun Z, Liu F, Li’na W, Yan L, Dekui Y (2008) Effects of high fluoride drinking water on the cerebral function of mice. Fluoride 41(2):148–151
Lu Y, Sun ZR, Wu LN, Wang X, Lu W, Liu SS (2000) Effect of high-fluoride water on intelligence in children. Fluoride 33:75–78
Parle M, Singh N, Vasudevan M (2006) Regular rehearsal helps in consolidation of long term memory. J Sports Sci Med 5:80–88
Prosser CL, Brown FA (1961) Comparative animal physiology, 2nd edn. WB Saunders, Philadelphia
Poulton EC (1980) The environment at work. Charles C Thomas, Springfield
Bursill AE (1958) The restriction of peripheral vision during exposure to hot and humid conditions. Q J Exp Psychol 10:113–129
Fine BJ, Kobrick JL (1978) Effects of attitude and heat on complex cognitive tasks. Human Factors 20:115–122
Scholander PF, Walter V, Hock R, Irving L (1950) Body insulation of some arctic and tropic mammals and birds. Biol Bull 99:225–236
Lu Y, Sun ZR, Wu LN, Wang X, Lu W, Liu SS (2000) Study of cognitive function impairment caused by fluorosis. Fluoride 33:74–78
Long YG, Wang YN, Chen J, Jiang SF, Nordberg A, Guana ZZ (2002) Chronic fluoride toxicity decreases the number of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in rat brain. Neurotoxicol Teratol 24:751–757
Levy MN (1971) Sympathetic–parasympathetic interactions in the heart. Circ Res 29:437–445
Moser E, Mathesen I, Andersen P (1993) Association between brain temperature and dentate field potentials in exploring and swimming rats. Science 259:1324–1326
Parkin JM, Carey MF, Zhao S, Febbraio MA (1999) Effect of ambient temperature on human skeletal muscle metabolism during fatiguing sub-maximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 86:902–908
Begley S (2009) The plastic mind: new science reveals our extraordinary potential to transform ourselves. Constable and Robinson, London
Fordyce DE, Farrar RP (1991) Physical activity effects on hippocampal and parietal cortical cholinergic function and spatial learning in F344 rats. Behav Brain Res 43:115–123
Anderson BJ, Rapp DN, Baek DH, McCloskey DP, Coburn-Litvak PS, Robinson JK (2000) Exercise influences spatial learning in the radial learning in the radial arm maze. Physiol Behav 70:425–429
Ang ET, Dawe GS, Wong PT, Moochhala S, Ng YK (2006) Alterations in spatial learning and memory after a forced exercise. Brain Res 1113:186–193
Jacobson L, Sapolsky R (1991) The role of the hippocampus in feedback regulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis. Endocr Rev 12:118–134
Lupien SJ, de Leon M, De Santi S et al (1998) Cortisol levels during human aging predict hippocampal atrophy and memory deficits. Nat Neurosci 1:69–73
Acknowledgment
This study was supported by BURIF grant from Bangalore University, India.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic Supplementary Material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
ESM 1
(JPEG 99 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Basha, P.M., Sujitha, N.S. Combined Impact of Exercise and Temperature in Learning and Memory Performance of Fluoride Toxicated Rats. Biol Trace Elem Res 150, 306–313 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-012-9489-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-012-9489-3