Abstract
The first aim of the present study was to assess the effect of stereotype threat on recall of a visual event involving cars by female witnesses. It was expected that stereotyped women (by the interviewer) would provide a poorer description of the cars involved than non-stereotyped women. The second aim was to test if a modified cognitive interview (MCI) could reduce this negative effect. We expected that MCI reduce the harmful effect of stereotype threat on women’s recall in comparison with a control interview (CI). Sixty-nine women watched a videotape of a criminal event involving cars. Two days later, they had to recall the to-be-remembered event and were given either a neutral or a threatening (= stereotyping) instruction. They were then interviewed using a CI or an MCI. Results showed that threatened women were less accurate and made more errors and confabulations than non-threatened women. They also produced more incorrect details about the cars involved. Moreover, the MCI elicited more correct details but without impairing accuracy for both threatened and non-threatened women. Our study supports the existing evidence that women’s testimony may be affected by the social context and highlights the need to use the MCI during judicial interviews.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allison M, Overman AA, Braun M, Campbell M, Price JR (2014) Recognition and recall of vehicles and manufacturer symbols: implications for eyewitness vehicle identifications. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice 10:83–97
Beilock SL, Rydell RJ, McConnell AR (2007) Stereotype threat and working memory: mechanisms, alleviation, and spillover. J Exp Psychol Gen 136(2):256–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.136.2.256
Bower GH (1967) A multicomponent theory of the memory trace. In: Spence KW, Spence JT (eds) The psychology of learning and motivation: advances in research and theory. Academic Press, New York
Brown RP, Pinel EC (2003) Stigma on my mind: individual differences in the experience of stereotype threat. J Exp Soc Psychol 39(6):626–633. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00039-8
Cadinu M, Maass A, Rosabianca A, Kiesner J (2005) Why do women underperform under stereotype threat? Evidence for the role of negative thinking. Psychol Sci 16(7):572–578. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01577.x
Chasteen AL, Bhattacharyya S, Horhota M, Tam R, Hasher L (2005) How feelings of stereotype threat influence older adults' memory performance. Exp Aging Res 31(3):235–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610730590948177
Clifford BR, George R (1996) A field investigation of training in three methods of witness/victim investigative interviewing. Psychol Crime Law 2:231–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683169608409780
Colomb C, Ginet M (2012) The cognitive interview used with adults: an empirical test of an alternative mnemonic and of a modified protocol. Appl Cogn Psychol 26(1):35–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1792
Colomb C, Ginet M, Wright D, Demarchi S, Sadler C (2013) Back to the real: efficiency, acceptability and utilization of the cognitive interview in the field. Appl Cogn Psychol 27(5):574–583
Croizet J-C, Desert M, Dutrevis M, Leyens J-P (2001) Stereotype threat, social class, gender, and academic under-achievement: when our reputation catches up to us and takes over. Soc Psychol Educ 4(3–4):295–310. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011336821053
Croizet J, Després G, Gauzins M, Huguet P, Leyens J, Méot A (2004) Stereotype threat undermines intellectual performance by triggering a disruptive mental load. Personal Soc Psychol Bull 30(6):721–731. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204263961
Davis MR, McMahon M, Greenwood KM (2004) The role of visual imagery in the enhanced cognitive interview: guided questioning techniques and individual differences. J Investig Psychol Offender Profiling 1(1):33–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.6
Delgado AR, Prieto G (2008) Stereotype threat as validity threat: the anxiety-sex-threat interaction. Intelligence 36(6):635–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.008
Désert M, Croizet J-C, Leyens J-P (2002) La menace du stéréotype: interaction entre situation et identité. L'année psychologique 102(3):555–576. https://doi.org/10.3406/psy.2002.29606
Félonneau M-L, Becker M (2011) Femmes au volant, danger au tournant, les conductrices sont-elles victimes d'une menace du stéréotype ? Psychologie du Travail et des Organisations 17(4):314–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1420-2530(16)30105-4
Fisher RP, Geiselman RE, Amador M (1989) Field test of the cognitive interview: enhancing the recollection of actual victims and witness of crime. J Appl Psychol 74:722–727. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.74.5.722
Fisher RP, Geiselman RE, Raymond DS (1987a) Critical analysis of police interview techniques. J Police Sci Adm 15:177–185
Fisher RP, Geiselman RE, Raymond DS, Jurkevich LM, Warhaftig ML (1987b) Enhancing enhanced eyewitness memory: refining the cognitive interview. J Police Sci Adm 15(4):291–297
Fisher RP, Geiselman RE (1992) Memory enhancing techniques for investigative interviewing: the cognitive interview. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield III
Fisher RP, Geiselman RE (2010) The cognitive interview method of conducting police interviews: eliciting extensive information and promoting therapeutic jurisprudence. Int J Law Psychiatry 33(5–6):321–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2010.09.004
Geiselman RE, Fisher RP (2014) Interviewing witnesses and victims. In: St. Yves M (ed) Investigative interviewing: the essentials. Thomson Reuters Publishers, Toronto, pp 29–53
Geiselman RE, Fisher RP, Firstenberg I, Hutton LA, Sullivan S, Avetissian I, Prosk A (1984) Enhancement of eyewitness memory: an empirical evaluation of the cognitive interview. J Police Sci Adm 12:74–80
Geiselman RE, Fisher RP, Cohen G, Holland H, Surtes L (1986) Eyewitness responses to leading and misleading questions under cognitive interview. J Police Sci Adm 14:31–39
Ginet M, Py J (2001) A technique for enhancing memory in eyewitness testimonies for use by police officers and judicial officials: the cognitive interview. Le Travail Humain 64(2):173–191. https://doi.org/10.3917/th.642.0173
Good C, Aronson J, Harder J (2008) Problems in the pipeline: stereotype threat and women's achievement in high-level math courses. J Appl Dev Psychol 29(1):17–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2007.10.004
Granié M, Papafava E (2011) Gender stereotypes associated with vehicle driving among French preadolescents and adolescents. Transport Res F: Traffic Psychol Behav 14(5):341–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2011.04.002
Green DM, Swets JA (1996) Signal detection theory and psychophysics. John Wiley, Oxford England
Harris MB, Voorhees SD (1981) Sex-role stereotypes and televised models of emotion. Psychol Rep 48(3):826. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1981.48.3.826
Henkel LA (2014) Do older adults change their eyewitness reports when re-questioned? J Gerontol Ser B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 69(3):356–365. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt071
Hess TM, Auman C, Colcombe SJ, Rahhal TA (2003) The impact of stereotype threat on age differences in memory performance. J Gerontol Ser B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 58(1):3–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/58.1.P3
Hess TM, Hinson JT, Statham JA (2004) Explicit and implicit stereotype activation effects on memory: do age and awareness moderate the impact of priming ? Psychol Aging 19(3):495–505. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.3.495
Hively K, El-Alayli A (2014) You throw like a girl: the effect of stereotype threat on women's athletic performance and gender stereotypes. Psychol Sport Exerc 15:48–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.09.001
Hollingshead AB, Fraidin S (2003) Gender stereotypes and assumptions about expertise in transactive memory. J Exp Soc Psychol 39(4):355–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00549-8
Inzlicht M, McKay L, Aronson J (2006) Stigma as ego depletion: how being the target of prejudice affects self-control. Psychol Sci 17(3):262–269. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01695.x
Köhnken G, Milne R, Memon A, Bull R (1999) The cognitive interview: a meta-analysis. Psychol Crime Law 5:3–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683169908414991
Kray LJ, Thompson L, Galinsky A (2001) Battle of the sexes: gender stereotype confirmation and reactance in negotiations. J Pers Soc Psychol 80(6):942–958. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.942
Krendl AC, Richeson JA, Kelley WM, Heatherton TF (2008) The negative consequences of threat: a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of the neural mechanisms underlying women's underperformance in math. Psychol Sci 19(2):168–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02063.x
Leyens J-P, Desert M, Croizet J-C, Darcis C (2000) Stereotype threat: are lower status and history of stereotype threat? Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 26(10):1189–1199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200262002
Marx DM, Roman JS (2002) Female role models: protecting women’s math test performance. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 28(9):1183–1193. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672022812004
McKelvie SJ, Standing L, St. Jean D, Law J (1993) Gender differences in recognition memory for faces and cars: evidence for the interest hypothesis. Bull Psychon Soc 31(5):447–448. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03334958
Meisner BA (2012) A meta-analysis of positive and negative age stereotype priming effects on behavior in older adults. Journal of Gerontology:Psychological Sciences 67:13–17. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbr062
Memon A, Meissner CA, Fraser J (2010) The cognitive interview: a meta-analytic review and study space analysis of the past 25 years. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law 16(4):340–372. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020518
Milne R, Bull R (2003) Does the cognitive interview help children to resist the effects of suggestive questioning? Leg Criminol Psychol 8(1):21–38. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532503762871219
Ministère de la justice (2013) Les chiffres-clés de la justice. [En ligne]. Récupéré le 13 octobre 2014 à http://www.justice.gouv.fr/art_pix/1_stat_Chiffres_cles_2013.pdf
Moé A, Cadinu M, Maas A (2015) Women drive better if not stereotyped. Accid Anal Prev 85:199–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2015.09.021
Nguyen H-HD, Ryan AM (2008) Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? a meta-analysis of experimental evidence. J Appl Psychol 93(6):1314–1334. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012702
Paulo R, Albuquerque PB, Bull R (2016) Improving the enhanced cognitive interview with a new interview strategy: category clustering recall. Appl Cogn Psychol 30:775–784. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3253
Pinel EC (1999) Stigma consciousness: the psychological legacy of social stereotypes. J Pers Soc Psychol 76(1):114–128. https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.76.1.114
Rosenthal HS, Crisp RJ, Suen M (2007) Improving performance expectancies in stereotypic domains: task relevance and the reduction of stereotype threat. Eur J Soc Psychol 37(3):586–597. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.379
Rossion B, Curran T (2010) Visual expertise with pictures of cars correlates with RT magnitude of the car inversion effect. Perception 392:173–183. https://doi.org/10.1068/p6270
Schimel J, Arndt J, Banko KM, Cook A (2004) Not all self-affirmations were created equal: the cognitive and social benefit of affirming the intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) self. Soc Cogn 22(1):75–99. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.22.1.75.30984
Schmader T, Johns M, Barquissau M (2004) The costs of accepting gender differences: the role of stereotype endorsement in women’s experience in the math domain. Sex Roles 50(11–12):835–850. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000029101.74557.a0
Shih M, Pittinsky TL, Ambady N (1999) Stereotype susceptibility: identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance. American Psychological Society 10(1):80–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00111
Smith JL, White PH (2002) An examination of implicitly activated, explicitly activated, and nullified stereotypes on mathematical performance: It's not just a woman's issue. Sex Roles 47(3–4):179–191. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021051223441
Spencer SJ, Steele CM, Quinn DM (1999) Stereotype threat and women's math performance. J Exp Soc Psychol 35(1):4–28. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1998.1373
Stangor C, Carr C, Kiang L (1998) Activating stereotypes undermines task performance expectations. J Pers Soc Psychol 75(5):1191–1197. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.5.1191
Steele CM, Aronson J (1995) Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. J Pers Soc Psychol 69(5):797–811. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
Stone J (2002) Battling doubt by avoiding practice: the effects of stereotype threat on self- handicapping in white athletes. Personal Soc Psychol Bull 28(12):1667–1678. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616702237648
Stone J, McWhinnie C (2008) Evidence that blatant versus subtle stereotype threat cues impact performance through dual processes. J Exp Soc Psychol 44:445–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2007.02.006
Tanner WR, Swets JA (1954) A decision-making theory of visual detection. Psychol Rev 61(6):401–409. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0058700
Tulving E, Thomson DM (1973) Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychol Rev 80:352–373. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0020071
Tulving E (1974) Cue-dependent forgetting. Am Sci 62:74–82
Van Bergen S, Horselenberg R, Merckelbach H, Jelicic M, Beckers R (2010) Memory distrust and acceptance of misinformation. Appl Cogn Psychol 24(6):885–896. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1595
Villegas AB, Sharps MJ, Satterthwaite B, Chisholm S (2005) Eyewitness memory for vehicles. Forensic Examiner 14:24–28
Wright AM, Holliday RE (2007) Enhancing the recall of young, young-old and old-old adults with the cognitive interview and a modified version of the cognitive interview. Appl Cogn Psychol 21:19–43. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1260
Yeung N, Von Hippel C (2008) Stereotype threat increases the likelihood that female drivers in a simulator run over jaywalkers. Accid Anal Prev 40(2):667–674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2007.09.003
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Appendix
Appendix
Neutral instruction
Of course you are going to talk about the details of the whole film, but please pay particular attention to the description of the cars involved.
Instruction reinforcing the threat related to the stereotype
Of course you are going to talk about the details of the whole film as well as about the cars involved. In fact, the aim of this study is actually to evaluate your knowledge about cars and your ability to describe them. Therefore, please pay particular attention to this description. And remember that your knowledge about cars will determine how well you do.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Brelet, L., Ginet, M., Colomb, C. et al. Memory for Cars Among a Female Population: Is the Cognitive Interview Beneficial in Reducing Stereotype Threat?. J Police Crim Psych 34, 109–120 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-018-9261-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-018-9261-5