Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The abundance, characteristics and diversity of microplastics in the South China Sea: Observation around three remote islands

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Surrounded by emerging markets with considerable plastic consumption, the South China Sea has been a focus area of microplastic research. A survey on the floating microplastics (> 0.3 mm) and microplastics ingested by fish and mollusks was conducted around three remote islands here. Compared with the results from several previous studies, a high abundance of floating microplastics (with a median of 1.9 × 105 items/km2 or 0.7 items/m3) was observed, revealing another “hot spot” for microplastics. Polyolefin, especially polypropylene, was the main component. The diversity index and evenness index were calculated and evaluated based on the composition of microplastics. The characteristic peaks of Raman spectra concerning pigmented microplastics were provided. Transparent sheets/films were predominant in the water sample, which was quite different from a similar study in this sea area (8.9% for film), and only 16.4% of floating microplastics (> 0.3 mm) were fibers/lines, implying that the main sources of floating microplastics (> 0.3 mm) might be household/agricultural consumption activities. The transparent fiber/line was also dominant in organisms. It is suggested that the main sources of microplastics ingested by organisms might be both fabric fibers and fishing/aquaculture.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Berry K L E, Epstein H E, Lewis P J, Hall N M, Negri A P (2019). Microplastic contamination has limited effects on coral fertilisation and larvae. Diversity, 11(12): 228

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borrelle S B, Ringma J, Law K L, Monnahan C C, Lebreton L, McGivern A, Murphy E, Jambeck J, Leonard G H, Hilleary M A, Eriksen M, Possingham H P, De Frond H, Gerber L R, Polidoro B, Tahir A, Bernard M, Mallos N, Barnes M, Rochman C M (2020). Predicted growth in plastic waste exceeds efforts to mitigate plastic pollution. Science, 369(6510): 1515–1518

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Browne M A, Crump P, Niven S J, Teuten E, Tonkin A, Galloway T, Thompson R (2011). Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines woldwide: Sources and sinks. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(21): 9175–9179

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burgio L, Clark R J H (2001). Library of FT-Raman spectra of pigments, minerals, pigment media and varnishes, and supplement to existing library of Raman spectra of pigments with visible excitation. Spectrochimica Acta. Part A, Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 57(7): 1491–1521

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cabernard L, Roscher L, Lorenz C, Gerdts G, Primpke S (2018). Comparison of Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for the quantification of microplastics in the aquatic environment. Environmental Science & Technology, 52(22): 13279–13288

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caggiani M C, Cosentino A, Mangone A (2016). Pigments Checker version 3.0, a handy set for conservation scientists: A free online Raman spectra database. Microchemical Journal, 129: 123–132

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cai M, He H, Liu M, Li S, Tang G, Wang W, Huang P, Wei G, Lin Y, Chen B, Hu J, Cen Z (2018). Lost but can’t be neglected: Huge quantities of small microplastics hide in the South China Sea. Science of the Total Environment, 633: 1206–1216

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen H, Wang S, Guo H, Lin H, Zhang Y, Long Z, Huang H (2019). Study of marine debris around a tourist city in East China: Implication for waste management. Science of the Total Environment, 676: 278–289

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen J C, Fang C, Zheng R H, Hong F K, Jiang Y L, Zhang M, Li Y, Hamid F S, Bo J, Lin L S (2021). Microplastic pollution in wild commercial nekton from the South China Sea and Indian Ocean, and its implication to human health. Marine Environmental Research, 167: 105295

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Codina-García M, Militão T, Moreno J, González-Solís J (2013). Plastic debris in Mediterranean seabirds. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 77(1–2): 220–226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collard F, Gilbert B, Eppe G, Parmentier E, Das K (2015). Detection of anthropogenic particles in fish stomachs: An isolation method adapted to identification by Raman Spectroscopy. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 69(3): 331–339

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Critchell K, Hoogenboom M O (2018). Effects of microplastic exposure on the body condition and behaviour of planktivorous reef fish (Acanthochromis polyacanthus). PLoS One, 13(3): e0193308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Carvalho-Souza G F, Llope M, Tinôco M S, Medeiros D V, Maia-Nogueira R, Sampaio C L S (2018). Marine litter disrupts ecological processes in reef systems. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 133: 464–471

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dell’Ariccia G, Phillips R A, van Franeker J A, Gaidet N, Catry P, Granadeiro J P, Ryan P G, Bonadonna F (2017). Comment on “Marine plastic debris emits a keystone infochemical for olfactory foraging seabirds” by Savoca et al. Science Advances, 3(6): e1700526

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denekamp I M, Veenstra F L P, Jungbacker P, Rothenberg G (2019). A simple synthesis of symmetric phthalocyanines and their respective perfluoro and transition- metal complexes. Applied Organometallic Chemistry, 33(5): e4872

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ding J, Jiang F, Li J, Wang Z, Sun C, Wang Z, Fu L, Ding N X, He C (2019). Microplastics in the coral reef systems from Xisha Islands of South China Sea. Environmental Science & Technology, 53(14): 8036–8046

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dowarah K, Devipriya S P (2019). Microplastic prevalence in the beaches of Puducherry, India and its correlation with fishing and tourism/recreational activities. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 148: 123–133

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dris R, Gasperi J, Rocher V, Tassin B (2018). Synthetic and non-synthetic anthropogenic fibers in a river under the impact of Paris Megacity: Sampling methodological aspects and flux estimations. Science of the Total Environment, 618: 157–164

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Enfrin M, Dumée L F, Lee J (2019). Nano/microplastics in water and wastewater treatment processes- Origin, impact and potential solutions. Water Research, 161: 621–638

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksen M, Lebreton L C M, Carson H S, Thiel M, Moore C J, Borerro J C, Galgani F, Ryan P G, Reisser J (2014). Plastic pollution in the world’s oceans: More than 5 trillion plastic pieces weighing over 250,000 tons afloat at sea. PLoS One, 9(12): e111913

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estahbanati S, Fahrenfeld N L (2016). Influence of wastewater treatment plant discharges on microplastic concentrations in surface water. Chemosphere, 162: 277–284

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fang C, Zheng R, Chen H, Hong F, Lin L, Lin H, Guo H, Bailey C, Segner H, Mu J, Bo J (2019). Comparison of microplastic contamination in fish and bivalves from two major cities in Fujian province, China and the implications for human health. Aquaculture (Amsterdam, Netherlands), 512: 734322

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fang C, Zheng R, Zhang Y, Hong F, Mu J, Chen M, Song P, Lin L, Lin H, Le F, Bo J (2018). Microplastic contamination in benthic organisms from the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions. Chemosphere, 209: 298–306

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • GESAMP (2019). Guidelines or the monitoring and assessment of plastic litter and microplastics in the ocean. Kershaw P J, Turra A and Galgani F, eds. GESAMP (IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP/UNDP/ISA Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection) Report and Studies No. 99, 130p

  • Goldstein M C, Titmus A J, Ford M (2013). Scales of spatial heterogeneity of plastic marine debris in the northeast Pacific Ocean. PLoS One, 8(11), e80020

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris P T, Tamelander J, Lyons Y, Neo M L, Maes T (2021). Taking a mass-balance approach to assess marine plastics in the South China Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 171: 112708

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hidayaturrahman H, Lee T G (2019). A study on characteristics of microplastic in wastewater of South Korea: Identification, quantification, and fate of microplastics during treatment process. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 146: 696–702

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang Y, Yan M, Xu K, Nie H, Gong H, Wang J (2019). Distribution characteristics of microplastics in Zhubi Reef from South China Sea. Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 255(Pt 1): 113133

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Imhof H K, Laforsch C, Wiesheu A C, Schmid J, Anger P M, Niessner R, Ivleva N P (2016). Pigments and plastic in limnetic ecosystems: A qualitative and quantitative study on microparticles of different size classes. Water Research, 98: 64–74

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jambeck J R, Geyer R, Wilcox C, Siegler T R, Perryman M, Andrady A, Narayan R, Law K L (2015). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347(6223): 768–771

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen L H, Motti C A, Garm A L, Tonin H, Kroon F J (2019). Sources, distribution and fate of microfibres on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Scientific Reports, 9(1): 9021

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karami A, Golieskardi A, Keong Choo C, Larat V, Galloway T S, Salamatinia B (2017). The presence of microplastics in commercial salts from different countries. Scientific Reports, 7(1): 46173

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanctôt C M, Bednarz V N, Melvin S, Jacob H, Oberhaensli F, Swarzenski P W, Ferrier-Pagès C, Carroll A R, Metian M (2020). Physiological stress response of the scleractinian coral Stylophora pistillata exposed to polyethylene microplastics. Environmental Pollution, 263 (Part A): 114559

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lebreton L C M, Borrero J C (2013). Modeling the transport and accumulation floating debris generated by the 11 March 2011 Tohoku tsunami. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 66(1–2): 53–58

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lebreton L C M, van der Zwet J, Damsteeg J W, Slat B, Andrady A, Reisser J (2017). River plastic emissions to the world’s oceans. Nature Communications, 8(1): 15611

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lestari P, Trihadiningrum Y (2019). The impact of improper solid waste management to plastic pollution in Indonesian coast and marine environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 149: 110505

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu J Y (2013a). Status of marine biodiversity of the China seas. PLoS One, 8(1): e50719

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu R (2013b). Marine Organism (in Chinese). In: Wang Y eds. China’s Marine Geography. Beijing: Science Press, 245–409

    Google Scholar 

  • Ma C, You K, Zhang M, Li F, Chen D (2008). A preliminary study on the diversity of fish species and marine fish faunas of the South China Sea. Journal of Ocean University of China, 7(2): 210–214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshell J (2010). FT Raman spectrum and band assignments formetal-free phthalocyanine (H2Pc). Material Science Research India, 7(1): 221–224

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masura J, Baker J, Foster G, Arthur C (2015). Laboratory methods for the analysis of microplastics in the marine environment: Recommendations for quantifying synthetic particles in waters and sediments. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R-48. Available online at website of https://marinedebris.noaa.gov (accessed December 18, 2019)

  • Michida Y, Chavanich S, Cabañas A C, Hagmann P, Hinata H, Isobe A, Kershaw P, Kozlovskii N, Li D, Lusher A L, Martí E, Mason S A, Mu J, Saito H, Shim W J, Syakti A D, Takada H, Thompson R, Tokai T, Uchida K, Vasilenko K, Wang J (2019). Guidelines for harmonizing ocean surface microplastic monitoring methods. Ministry of the Environment Japan, 71 pp. Available online at website of https://www.env.go.jp (accessed December 18, 2019)

  • Min K, Cuiffi J D, Mathers R T (2020). Ranking environmental degradation trends of plastic marine debris based on physical properties and molecular structure. Nature Communications, 11(1): 727

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Montano S, Seveso D, Maggioni D, Galli P, Corsarini S, Saliu F (2020). Spatial variability of phthalates contamination in the reef-building corals Porites lutea, Pocillopora verrucosa and Pavona varians. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 155: 111117

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moore C, Phillip C (2011). Plastic Ocean: How a Sea Captain’s Chance Discovery Launched a Determined Quest to Save the Oceans. 1st ed. New York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munari C, Corbau C, Simeoni U, Mistri M (2016). Marine litter on Mediterranean shores: Analysis of composition, spatial distribution and sources in north-western Adriatic beaches. Waste Management (New York, N.Y.), 49: 483–490

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nie H, Wang J, Xu K, Huang Y, Yan M (2019). Microplastic pollution in water and fish samples around Nanxun Reef in Nansha Islands, South China Sea. Science of the Total Environment, 696: 134022

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Orte M R, Clowez S, Caldeira K (2019). Response of bleached and symbiotic sea anemones to plastic microfiber exposure. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 249: 512–517

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pan Z, Guo H, Chen H, Wang S, Sun X, Zou Q, Zhang Y, Lin H, Cai S, Huang J (2019). Microplastics in the Northwestern Pacific: Abundance, distribution, and characteristics. Science of the Total Environment, 650(Pt 2): 1913–1922

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peng X, Chen M, Chen S, Dasgupta S, Xu H, Ta K, Du M, Li J, Guo Z, Bai S (2018). Microplastics contaminate the deepest part of the world’s ocean. Geochemical Perspectives Letters, 9: 1–5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reichert J, Arnold A L, Hoogenboom M O, Schubert P, Wilke T (2019). Impacts of microplastics on growth and health of hermatypic corals are species-specific. Environmental Pollution, 254 (B): 113074

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reichert J, Schellenberg J, Schubert P, Wilke T (2018). Responses of reef building corals to microplastic exposure. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 237: 955–960

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reisser J, Slat B, Noble K, du Plessis K, Epp M, Proietti M, de Sonneville J, Becker T, Pattiaratchi C (2015). The vertical distribution of buoyant plastics at sea: An observational study in the North Atlantic Gyre. Biogeosciences, 12(4): 1249–1256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saliu F, Montano S, Leoni B, Lasagni M, Galli P (2019). Microplastics as a threat to coral reef environments: Detection of phthalate esters in neuston and scleractinian corals from the Faafu Atoll, Maldives. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 142: 234–241

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Savoca M S, Wohlfeil M E, Ebeler S E, Nevitt G A (2016). Marine plastic debris emits a keystone infochemical for olfactory foraging seabirds. Science Advances, 2(11): e1600395

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw E J, Turner A (2019). Recycled electronic plastic and marine litter. Science of the Total Environment, 694: 133644

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shim W J, Hong S H, Eo S (2017). Identification methods in microplastic analysis: A review. Analytical Methods, 9(9): 1384–1391

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks C, Immelman S (2020). Microplastics in offshore fish from the Agulhas Bank, South Africa. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 156: 111216

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suaria G, Perold V, Lee J R, Lebouard F, Aliani S, Ryan P G (2020). Floating macro- and microplastics around the Southern Ocean: Results from the Antarctic Circumnavigation Expedition. Environment International, 136: 105494

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taha Z D, Md Amin R, Anuar S T, Nasser A A, Sohaimi E S (2021). Microplastics in seawater and zooplankton: A case study from Terengganu estuary and offshore waters, Malaysia. Science of the Total Environment, 786: 147466

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tamminga M, Stoewer S-C, Fischer E K (2019). On the representativeness of pump water samples versus manta sampling in microplastic analysis. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 254(PtA): 112970

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tan F, Yang H, Xu X, Fang Z, Xu H, Shi Q, Zhang X, Wang G, Lin L, Zhou S, Huang L, Li H (2020). Microplastic pollution around remote uninhabited coral reefs of Nansha Islands, South China Sea. Science of the Total Environment, 725: 138383

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tan W, Cui D, Xi B (2021). Moving policy and regulation forward for single-use plastic alternatives. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 15(3): 50

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tang G, Liu M, Zhou Q, He H, Chen K, Zhang H, Hu J, Huang Q, Luo Y, Ke H, Chen B, Xu X, Cai M (2018a). Microplastics and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Xiamen coastal areas: Implications for anthropogenic impacts. Science of the Total Environment, 634: 811–820

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tang J, Ni X Z, Zhou Z, Wang L G, Lin S J (2018b). Acute microplastic exposure raises stress response and suppresses detoxification and immune capacities in the scleractinian coral Pocillopora damicornis. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 243(Pt A): 66–74

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tang J, Wu Z, Wan L, Cai W, Chen S, Wang X, Luo J, Zhou Z, Zhao J, Lin S (2021). Differential enrichment and physiological impacts of ingested microplastics in scleractinian corals in situ. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 404(Pt B): 124205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Sebille E, Aliani S, Law K L, Maximenko N, Alsina J M, Bagaev A, Bergmann M, Chapron B, Chubarenko I, Cózar A, Delandmeter P, Egger M, Fox-Kemper B, Garaba S P, Goddijn-Murphy L, Hardesty B D, Hoffman M J, Isobe A, Jongedijk C E, Kaandorp M L A, Khatmullina L, Koelmans A A, Kukulka T, Laufkötter C, Lebreton L, Lobelle D, Maes C, Martinez-Vicente V, Maqueda M A M, Poulain-Zarcos M, Rodríguez E, Ryan P G, Shanks A L, Shim W J, Suaria G, Thiel M, van den Bremer T S, Wichmann D (2020). The physical oceanography of the transport of floating marine debris. Environmental Research Letters, 15(2): 023003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Sebille E, Wilcox C, Lebreton L, Maximenko N, Hardesty B D, van Franeker J A, Eriksen M, Siegel D, Galgani F, Law K L (2015). A global inventory of small floating plastic debris. Environmental Research Letters, 10(12): 124006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang S, Chen H, Zhou X, Tian Y, Lin C, Wang W, Zhou K, Zhang Y, Lin H (2020). Microplastic abundance, distribution and composition in the mid-west Pacific Ocean. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 264: 114125

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang T, Zou X, Li B, Yao Y, Zang Z, Li Y, Yu W, Wang W (2019). Preliminary study of the source apportionment and diversity of microplastics: Taking floating microplastics in the South China Sea as an example. Environmental Pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 245: 965–974

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WTO (2020). World trade statistical review 2020 Chapter IV Shifting patterns in trade. Available online at the website of https://www.wto.org (accessed March 2, 2021)

  • Wu P, Huang J, Zheng Y, Yang Y, Zhang Y, He F, Chen H, Quan G, Yan J, Li T, Gao B (2019). Environmental occurrences, fate, and impacts of microplastics. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 184: 109612

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu E G, Ren Z J (2021). Preventing masks from becoming the next plastic problem. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 15(6): 125

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao S, Danley M, Ward J E, Li D, Mincer T C (2017). An approach for extraction, characterization and quantitation of microplastic in natural marine snow using Raman microscopy. Analytical Methods, 9(9): 1470–1478

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu C, Li D, Sun Y, Zheng X, Peng X, Zheng K, Hu B, Luo X, Mai B (2019a). Plastic debris in marine birds from an island located in the South China Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 149: 110566

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu J, Zhang Q, Li Y, Tan S, Kang Z, Yu X, Lan W, Cai L, Wang J, Shi H (2019b). Microplastic pollution in the Maowei Sea, a typical mariculture bay of China. Science of the Total Environment, 658: 62–68

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The study was supported by National Key Research & Development Program of China (Grant No. 2019YFD0901101), and China Blue Bay Remediation Action Plan. The authors are grateful to Professor Niu Wentao and Dr. Yu Shuangen for their help with samples collection and Professor Du Jianguo for his help with species identification. The authors would like to thank NMDIS for developing (cora.nmdis.org.cn) the CORA data sets used in this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen, 361005, China

    Hongzhe Chen, Sumin Wang, Huige Guo, Yunlong Huo, Hui Lin & Yuanbiao Zhang

Authors
  1. Hongzhe Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sumin Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Huige Guo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Yunlong Huo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Hui Lin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Yuanbiao Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hongzhe Chen.

Additional information

Highlights

• A high abundance of floating MPs was found in the southern South China Sea.

• Transparent film and fiber were predominant in water and organisms, respectively.

• 84.7% of floating MPs and 54.5% of MPs in vivo belonged to PP and PE.

• Characteristics of MP in organisms were different from those of inshore ones.

Supplementary materials for

11783_2021_1443_MOESM1_ESM.pdf

The abundance, characteristics and diversity of microplastics in the South China Sea: Observation around three remote islands

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Chen, H., Wang, S., Guo, H. et al. The abundance, characteristics and diversity of microplastics in the South China Sea: Observation around three remote islands. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 16, 9 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-021-1443-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-021-1443-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation