Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hey big spender! A golden (color) atmospheric effect on tipping behavior

  • Original Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This research examines how gold-related color in atmospherics might influence customer tipping behavior at restaurants. A series of five studies shows that the color gold (as opposed to other colors) in a service atmosphere positively influences consumer tipping. First, a field experiment (Study 1) demonstrates that customers presented with a gold-colored (vs. black-colored) service prop (i.e., bill folder) leave larger tips. Study 2 further confirms this effect of the color gold by validating the findings of Study 1 with a different service prop (i.e., tablecloth). Process evidence demonstrates the underlying mechanism of this effect, whereby a gold-colored service prop increases tipping by influencing status perceptions about the restaurant and the self (Study 3). Additional studies further confirm this by ruling out novelty of the color in this mechanism (Study 4) and by highlighting the effect of status on tipping through status priming (Study 5). The findings of this research have implications for strategic use of color in servicescape design and atmospherics in general.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Power is conceptually different from status. Unlike status, which is determined by “the eyes of others,” power is defined as the ability to influence others through control over resources or through the capacity to punish them (Anderson et al. 2015; Emerson 1962; Fiske 1993; Magee and Galinsky 2008).

  2. Since individual’s identifiable information could not be collected, returning customers were not captured. When customers left a tip in cash, wait staff noted the tip amount on the merchant copy of the receipt.

  3. Age and gender were not significant covariates in Studies 2, 3, and 4. In Study 5, gender was not a significant covariate but age was (F(1,79) = 11.32, p < .001).

  4. Time of day was not a significant covariate.

  5. These results are a combination of two datasets that were collapsed. In the first round of data collection, 76 participants were randomly assigned to the black-colored bill folder condition (n = 39) or the gold-colored bill folder (n = 37) condition. Tipping in the gold condition (M = 26.24%, SD = 8.78) was significantly larger than that in the black condition (M = 22.60%, SD = 5.63) at F(1,72) = 4.16, p < .05. Serial mediation tests showed a significant indirect path at the 90% CI [.0040, .1488] but failed to establish significance at the 95% CI. Acknowledging the significance of the indirect path at the 90% CI from the first dataset we collected, we conducted another round of data collection and then collapsed the two datasets into one to ensure that the lack of power would not be a concern in this study. The two rounds of data collection followed the same procedures; recruitment, manipulation, and the lab environments were the same.

  6. This result shows significant serial indirect effects. However, we do acknowledge that the direct effect remains significant, which suggests the existence of additional factors that could be influencing tipping behavior.

  7. We tested for a simple mediation effect of status (either restaurant status or self-status alone as a mediation mechanism), however, as predicted only a serial mediation chain was established.

  8. We added two items to restaurant status perception from Study 3 to make it a multi-item scale.

  9. This result shows significant serial indirect effects accompanied by significant direct effects, which suggests the existence of additional factors that could be influencing tipping behavior.

References

  • Abril, P. S., Olazábal, A. M., & Cava, A. (2009). Marketing and the law. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 37(3), 375–377.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, R. L. (2009). Fine food is not just for white- tablecloth restaurants anymore. Nation’s Restaurant News, 43(43), 21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, C. T., & Janiszewski, C. A. (1989). Assessing the role of contingency awareness in attitudinal conditioning with implications for advertising research. Journal of Marketing Research, 26(1), 30–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ampuero, O., & Vila, N. (2006). Consumer perceptions of product packaging. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 23(2), 100–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C., Hildreth, J. A. D., & Howland, L. (2015). Is the desire for status a fundamental human motive ? A review of the empirical literature. Psychological Bulletin, 141(3), 574–601.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azar, O. H. (2004). The history of tipping - from sixteenth-centruy England to United States in the 1910s. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 33(6), 745–764.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azar, O. H. (2007a). Why pay extra? Tipping and the importance of social norms and feelings in economic theory. Journal of Socio-Economics, 36(2), 250–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azar, O. H. (2007b). The social norm of tipping : a review. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37(2), 380–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babin, B. J., Hardesty, D. M., & Suter, T. A. (2003). Color and shopping intentions: the intervening effect of price fairness and perceived affect. Journal of Business Research, 56(7), 541–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bagchi, R., & Cheema, A. (2013). The effect of red background color on willingness-to-pay: the moderating role of selling mechanism. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(5), 947–960.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, J., & Cameron, M. (1996). The effects of the service environment on affect and consumer perception of waiting time: an analysis of an industrial technology diffusion. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 24(4), 338–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, J., Grewal, D., & Parasuraman, A. (1994). The influence of store environment on quality inferences and store image. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 22(4), 328–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barry, K. (2015). Sick of stainless? GE fridges get a kick of color. Retrieved March 19, from http://refrigerators.reviewed.com/news/colorful-fridges-might-come-to-a-retailer-near-you.

  • Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(2), 139–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bellizzi, J. A., & Hite, R. E. (1992). Environmental color, consumer feelings, and purchase likelihood. Psychology and Marketing, 9(5), 347–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bellizzi, J. A., Crowley, A. E., & Hasty, R. W. (1983). The effects of color in store design. Journal of Retailing, 59(1), 21–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, L. L., Wall, E. A., & Carbone, L. P. (2006). Service clues and customer assessment of the service experience : lessons from Marketing. Academy of Management Perspectives, 20(May), 43–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biswas, D., Labrecque, L., Markos, E., & Lehmann, D. R. (2014a). Making choices while smelling, tasting, and listening: the role of sensory (Dis)similarity when sequentially sampling products. Journal of Marketing, 78(1), 112–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biswas, D., Szocs, C., Krishna, A., & Lehmann, D. R. (2014b). Something to chew on: the effects of oral haptics on mastication, orosensory perception, and calorie estimation. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(2), 261–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biswas, D., Szocs, C., Wansink, B., & Chacko, R. (2017). Shining light on atmospherics: how ambient light influences food choices . Journal of Marketing Research, forthcoming.

  • Bitner, M. J. (1990). Evaluating service encounters: the effects of physical surroundings and employee responses. Journal of Marketing, 54(April), 69–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bitner, M. J. (1992). Servicescapes: the impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees. Journal of Marketing, 56(2), 57–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Block, L., & Kramer, T. (2009). The effect of superstitious beliefs on performance expectations. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 37(2), 161–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, R. N., Gustafsson, A., Nancy, J. M., & David, J. S. (2014). Small details that make big differences as a firm’s differentiating strategy. Journal of Service Management, 25(2), 253–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bower, A. B., & Landreth, S. (2001). Is beauty best? highly versus normally attractive models in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 30(1), 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conlin, M., Lynn, M., & O’Donoghue, T. (2003). The norm of restaurant tipping. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 52(3), 297–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, D. S., & Cox, A. D. (2002). Beyond first impressions: the effects of repeated exposure on consumer liking of visually complex and simple product designs. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 30(2), 119–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowley, A. E. (1993). The two-dimensional impact of color on shopping. Marketing Letters, 4(1), 59–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, M. R. (1979). Weather, mood, and helping behavior: quasi experiments with the sunshine samaritan. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(11), 1947–1956.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drèze, X., & Nunes, J. C. (2009). Feeling Superior: the impact of loyalty program structure on consumers’ perceptions of status. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(6), 890–905.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dubois, D., Rucker, D. D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2012). Super size me: product size as a signal of status. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(6), 1047–1062.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2014). Color psychology: effects of perceiving color on psychological functioning in humans. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 95–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., Maier, M. A., Moller, A. C., Friedman, R., & Meinhardt, J. (2007). Color and psychological functioning: the effect of red on performance attainment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136(1), 154–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, M. R. (1962). Power-dependence relations. American Sociological Review, 27(1), 31–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisk, R. P., Grove, S. J., & John, J. (2008). Interactive services marketing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, S. T. (1993). Controlling other people: the impact of power on stereotyping. American Psychologist, 48(6), 621–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geboy, L. D. (1996). Color makes a better message. Marketing Tools, 16(2), 52–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorn, G. J., Chattopadhyay, A., Yi, T., & Dahl, D. W. (1997). Effects of color as an executional cue in advertising: they’re in the shade. Management Science, 43(10), 1387–1400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorn, G. J., Chattopadhyay, A., & Sengupta, J. (2004). Waiting for the web : how screen color affects time perception. Journal of Marketing Research, 41(2), 215–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guéguen, N. (2012). Hair color and wages : waitresses with blond hair have more fun. Journal of Socio-Economics, 41(4), 370–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guéguen, N., & Jacob, C. (2012). Lipstick and tipping behavior: when red lipstick enhance waitresses tips. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(4), 1333–1335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guéguen, N., & Jacob, C. (2014). Clothing color and tipping: gentlemen patrons give more tips to waitress with red clothes. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 38(2), 275–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haeckel, S. H., Carbone, L. P., & Berry, L. L. (2003). How to lead the customer experience. Marketing Management, 12(January), 18–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Han, Y. J., Nunes, J. C., & Drèze, X. (2010). Signaling status with luxury goods: the role of brand prominence. Journal of Marketing, 74(4), 15–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hemphill, M. (1996). A note on adults’ color-emotion associations. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 157(3), 275–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, C. M., Beck, J. T., & Palmatier, R. W. (2011). Review of the theoretical underpinnings of loyalty programs. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21(3), 256–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heung, V. C. S., & Gu, T. (2012). Influence of restaurant atmospherics on patron satisfaction and behavioral intentions. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(4), 1167–1177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, A. S., Tsuji, A. A., Williams, C., & Seatriz, V. J. (2003). Effects of touch on gratuities received in same-gender and cross-gender dyads. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33(11), 2427–2438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, C., Guéguen, N., Gaëlle, B., & Ardiccioni, R. (2010). Waitresses’ facial cosmetics and tipping : a field experiment. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 29(1), 188–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaltcheva, V. D., & Weitz, B. A. (2006). When should a retailer create an exciting store environment? Journal of Marketing, 70(1), 107–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kay, P., & Regier, T. (2003). Resolving the question of color naming universals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(15), 9085–9089.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. (2013). Panera Bread pulls 'pay-what-you-want' chili. Retrieved August 22, 2015 from http://abcnews.go.com/Business/panera-pulls-pay-chili/story?id=19629087.

  • Kwortnik, R. J., Jr., Lynn, M., & Ross, W. T., Jr. (2009). Buyer monitoring : a means to insure personalized service buyer monitoring. Journal of Marketing, 46(5), 573–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Labrecque, L. I., & Milne, G. R. (2012). Exciting red and competent blue: the importance of color in marketing. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(5), 711–727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Labrecque, L. I., Patrick, V. M., & Milne, G. R. (2013). The marketers’ prismatic palette: a review of color research and future directions. Psychology & Marketing, 30(6), 461–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lohse, G. L., & Rosen, D. L. (2001). Signaling quality and credibility in directional advertising: the influence of color and graphics on choice. Journal of Advertising, 30(2), 73–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, M. (1997). Tipping customs and status seeking: a cross-country study. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 16(2), 221–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, M., & Grassman, A. (1990). Restaurant tipping: an examination of three rational explanations. Journal of Economic Psychology, 11(2), 169–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, M., & Latane, B. (1984). The psychology of restaurant tipping. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14(6), 549–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, M., & McCall, M. (2000). Gratitude and gratuity: a meta-analysis of research on the service-tipping relationship. Journal of Socio-Economics, 29(2), 203–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, M., & Sturman, M. (2003). It’s simpler than it seems. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 22(1), 103–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, M., Zinkhan, G. M., & Harris, J. (1993). Consumer Tipping: a cross-country study. Journal of Consumer Research, 20(3), 478–488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, M., Giebelhausen, M., Garcia, S., Li, Y., & Patumanon, I. (2016). Clothing color and tipping : an attempted replication and extension. Journal of Hospitality, 40(4), 516–524.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madden, T. J., Hewett, K., & Roth, M. S. (2000). Managingimages in different cultures: a cross-national study of color meanings andpreferences. Journal of International Marketing, 8(4), 90–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madzharov, A. V., Block, L. G., & Morrin, M. (2015). The cool scent of power: effects of ambient scent on consumer preferences and choice behavior. Journal of Marketing, 79(January), 83–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magee, J. C., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008). 8 Social hierarchy: the self-reinforcing nature of power and status. Academy of Management Annals 2(1), 351–398. 8

  • Mandel, N., & Johnson, E. J. (2002). When web pages influence choice: effects of visual primes on experts and novices. Journal of Consumer Research, 29(2), 235–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • May, J. M. (1980). Looking for tips: an empirical perspective on restaurant tipping. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 20(4), 6–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyers-Levy, J., & Zhu, R. (. J.). (2010). Gender differences in the meanings consumers infer from music and other aesthetic stimuli. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 20, 495–507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rawsthorn, A. (2010). Daring to play with a rich palette. Retrieved July 20, 2016 from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/18/arts/18iht-design18.html?_r=0.

  • Rind, B., & Bordia, P. (1996). Effect on restaurant tipping of male and female servers drawing a happy, smiling face on the backs of customers’ checks. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26(3), 218–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rucker, D. D., Dubois, D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2011). Generous paupers and stingy princes: power drives consumerspending on self versus others. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(6), 1015–1029.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schoenberger, C.R., (2004). Room for rent or sale. Retrieved July 20, 2016 from http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2004/0607/124.html.

  • Seiter, J. S. (2007). Ingratiation and gratuity: the effect of complimenting customers on tipping behavior in restaurants. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37(3), 478–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shamir, B. (1984). Between gratitude and gratuity: an anlysis of tipping. Annals of Tourism Research, 11(1), 59–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheridan, P. (2014). Living on $2.13 and hour, plus tips. CNN Money. Retrieved Oct. 31, 2015 from http://money.cnn.com/2014/05/05/news/economy/tipped-worker-minimum-wage/.

  • Singh, S. (2006). Impact of color on marketing. Management Decision, 44(6), 783–789.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephen, R., & Zweigenhaft, R. L. (1986). The effect on tipping of a waitress touching male and female. The Journal of Social Psychology, 126(1), 141–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strange, A. (2015). Why apple is obsessed with gold: It’s all about Asia. Marshable. Retrieved March 28, 2016 from http://mashable.com/2015/04/25/why-apple-loves-gold/#1otsB7lhNsqQ.

  • Vohs, K. D. (2006). The psychological consequences of money. Science, 314(5802), 1154–1156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vohs, K. D., Mead, N. L., & Goode, M. R. (2008). Merely activating the concept of money changes personal and interpersonal behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(3), 208–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitfield, T. W., & Wiltshire, T. J. (1990). Color psychology: a critical review. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 116(4), 385–411.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeithaml, V. A. (1988). Consumer perceptions of price, quality, and value. Journal of Marketing, 52(July), 2–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeltner, P. M. (1975). John Dewey’s aesthetic philosophy (vol. 12). Amsterdam: B. R. Grüner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., Jr., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, R., & Meyers-Levy, J. (2005). Distinguishing between the meanings of music: when background music affects product perceptions. Journal of Marketing Research, 42(3), 333–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Lauren Beitelspacher, Anne Roggeveen, and Stacey Robinson for their suggestions on Study 2.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Tennessee, 305 Stokely Management Center, Knoxville, TN, 37996-0530, USA

    Na Young Lee

  2. University of Tennessee, 310 Stokely Management Center, Knoxville, TN, 37996-0530, USA

    Stephanie M. Noble

  3. University of South Florida, BSN 3218, Department of Marketing, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA

    Dipayan Biswas

Authors
  1. Na Young Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stephanie M. Noble
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dipayan Biswas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stephanie M. Noble.

Additional information

Kelly Haws served as Area Editor for this article

Appendix

Appendix

Table 5 Descriptive statistics and measurement reliability
Full size table
Table 6 Summary of CFA results for key constructs in Studies 3 and 4
Full size table
Table 7 Correlations between variables in the hypotheses for Studies 3 and 4
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lee, N.Y., Noble, S.M. & Biswas, D. Hey big spender! A golden (color) atmospheric effect on tipping behavior. J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci. 46, 317–337 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-016-0508-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-016-0508-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation