Abstract
Cholesterol synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum requires electron input at multiple steps and utilizes both NADH and NADPH as the electron source. Four enzymes catalyzing five steps in the pathway require electron input: squalene monooxygenase, lanosterol demethylase, sterol 4α-methyl oxidase, and sterol C5-desaturase. The electron-donor proteins for these enzymes include cytochrome P450 reductase and the cytochrome b5 pathway. Here I review the evidence for electron donor protein requirements with these enzymes, the evidence for additional electron donor pathways, and the effect of deletion of these redox enzymes on cholesterol and lipid metabolism.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Risley JM (2002) Cholesterol biosynthesis: lanosterol to cholesterol. J Chem Educ 79:377–384
Sharpe LJ, Brown AJ (2013) Controlling cholesterol synthesis beyond 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR). J Biol Chem 288:18707–18715
Porter FD, Herman GE (2011) Malformation syndromes caused by disorders of cholesterol synthesis. J Lipid Res 52:6–34
Kanungo S, Soares N, He M, Steiner RD (2013) Sterol metabolism disorders and neurodevelopment—an update. Dev Disabil Res Rev 17:197–210
Seeger MA, Paller AS (2014) The role of abnormalities in the distal pathway of cholesterol synthesis in the congenital hemidysplasia with ichthyosiform erythroderma and limb defects (CHILD) syndrome. Biochim Biophys Acta 1841:345–352
Canueto J, Giros M, Gonzalez-Sarmiento R (2014) The role of the abnormalities in the distal pathway of cholesterol biosynthesis in the Conradi–Hunermann–Happle syndrome. Biochim Biophys Acta 1841:336–344
Woollett LA (2008) Where does fetal and embryonic cholesterol originate and what does it do? Annu Rev Nutr 28:97–114
Jeong J, McMahon AP (2002) Cholesterol modification of hedgehog family proteins. J Clin Invest 110:591–596
Mann RK, Beachy PA (2004) Novel lipid modifications of secreted protein signals. Annu Rev Biochem 73:891–923
Li L, Porter TD (2007) Hepatic cytochrome P450 reductase-null mice reveal a second microsomal reductase for squalene monooxygenase. Arch Biochem Biophys 461:76–84
Pandey AV, Fluck CE (2013) NADPH P450 oxidoreductase: structure, function, and pathology of diseases. Pharmacol Ther 138:229–254
Altuve A, Wang L, Benson DR, Rivera M (2004) Mammalian mitochondrial and microsomal cytochromes b(5) exhibit divergent structural and biophysical characteristics. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 314:602–609
Enoch HG, Strittmatter P (1979) Cytochrome b5 reduction by NADPH-cytochrome P-450 reductase. J Biol Chem 254:8976–8981
Shen AL, O’Leary KA, Kasper CB (2002) Association of multiple developmental defects and embryonic lethality with loss of microsomal NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase. J Biol Chem 277:6536–6541
Otto DM, Henderson CJ, Carrie D, Davey M, Gundersen TE, Blomhoff R, Adams RH, Tickle C, Wolf CR (2003) Identification of novel roles of the cytochrome p450 system in early embryogenesis: effects on vasculogenesis and retinoic Acid homeostasis. Mol Cell Biol 23:6103–6116
Finn RD, McLaughlin LA, Hughes C, Song C, Henderson CJ, Roland Wolf C (2011) Cytochrome b5 null mouse: a new model for studying inherited skin disorders and the role of unsaturated fatty acids in normal homeostasis. Transgenic Res 20:491–502
Giordano SJ, Kaftory A, Steggles AW (1994) A splicing mutation in the cytochrome b5 gene from a patient with congenital methemoglobinemia and pseudohermaphrodism. Hum Genet 93:568–570
Hegesh E, Hegesh J, Kaftory A (1986) Congenital methemoglobinemia with a deficiency of cytochrome b5. N Engl J Med 314:757–761
Kok RC, Timmerman MA, Wolffenbuttel KP, Drop SL, de Jong FH (2010) Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency due to the cytochrome b5 mutation W27X. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:994–999
Idkowiak J, Randell T, Dhir V, Patel P, Shackleton CH, Taylor NF, Krone N, Arlt W (2012) A missense mutation in the human cytochrome b5 gene causes 46, XY disorder of sex development due to true isolated 17,20 lyase deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:E465–E475
Porter TD (2012) New insights into the role of cytochrome P450 reductase (POR) in microsomal redox biology. Acta Pharm Sin B 2:100–104
Gu J, Weng Y, Zhang QY, Cui H, Behr M, Wu L, Yang W, Zhang L, Ding X (2003) Liver-specific deletion of the NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase gene: impact on plasma cholesterol homeostasis and the function and regulation of microsomal cytochrome P450 and heme oxygenase. J Biol Chem 278:25895–25901
Henderson CJ, Otto DM, Carrie D, Magnuson MA, McLaren AW, Rosewell I, Wolf CR (2003) Inactivation of the hepatic cytochrome P450 system by conditional deletion of hepatic cytochrome P450 reductase. J Biol Chem 278:13480–13486
Mutch DM, Klocke B, Morrison P, Murray CA, Henderson CJ, Seifert M, Williamson G (2007) The disruption of hepatic cytochrome p450 reductase alters mouse lipid metabolism. J Proteome Res 6:3976–3984
Finn RD, Henderson CJ, Scott CL, Wolf CR (2009) Unsaturated fatty acid regulation of cytochrome P450 expression via a CAR-dependent pathway. Biochem J 417:43–54
Porter TD, Banerjee S, Stolarczyk EI, Zou L (2011) Suppression of cytochrome P450 reductase (POR) expression in hepatoma cells replicates the hepatic lipidosis observed in hepatic POR-null mice. Drug Metab Dispos 39:966–973
Riddick DS, Ding X, Wolf CR, Porter TD, Pandey AV, Zhang QY, Gu J, Finn RD, Ronseaux S, McLaughlin LA, Henderson CJ, Zou L, Fluck CE (2013) NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase: roles in physiology, pharmacology, and toxicology. Drug Metab Dispos 41:12–23
Wang XJ, Chamberlain M, Vassieva O, Henderson CJ, Wolf CR (2005) Relationship between hepatic phenotype and changes in gene expression in cytochrome P450 reductase (POR) null mice. Biochem J 388:857–867
Weng Y, DiRusso CC, Reilly AA, Black PN, Ding X (2005) Hepatic gene expression changes in mouse models with liver-specific deletion or global suppression of the NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase gene. Mechanistic implications for the regulation of microsomal cytochrome P450 and the fatty liver phenotype. J Biol Chem 280:31686–31698
Miller WL (1986) Congenital adrenal hyperplasia. N Engl J Med 314:1321–1322
Fluck CE, Tajima T, Pandey AV, Arlt W, Okuhara K, Verge CF, Jabs EW, Mendonca BB, Fujieda K, Miller WL (2004) Mutant P450 oxidoreductase causes disordered steroidogenesis with and without Antley-Bixler syndrome. Nat Genet 36:228–230
Huang N, Pandey AV, Agrawal V, Reardon W, Lapunzina PD, Mowat D, Jabs EW, Van Vliet G, Sack J, Fluck CE, Miller WL (2005) Diversity and function of mutations in p450 oxidoreductase in patients with Antley-Bixler syndrome and disordered steroidogenesis. Am J Hum Genet 76:729–749
Schmidt K, Hughes C, Chudek JA, Goodyear SR, Aspden RM, Talbot R, Gundersen TE, Blomhoff R, Henderson C, Wolf CR, Tickle C (2009) Cholesterol metabolism: the main pathway acting downstream of cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase in skeletal development of the limb. Mol Cell Biol 29:2716–2729
Laue K, Pogoda HM, Daniel PB, van Haeringen A, Alanay Y, von Ameln S, Rachwalski M, Morgan T, Gray MJ, Breuning MH, Sawyer GM, Sutherland-Smith AJ, Nikkels PG, Kubisch C, Bloch W, Wollnik B, Hammerschmidt M, Robertson SP (2011) Craniosynostosis and multiple skeletal anomalies in humans and zebrafish result from a defect in the localized degradation of retinoic acid. Am J Hum Genet 89:595–606
Ono T, Ozasa S, Hasegawa F, Imai Y (1977) Involvement of Nadph-cytochrome C-reductase in rat-liver squalene epoxidase system. Biochim Biophys Acta 486:401–407
Ono T, Takahashi K, Odani S, Konno H, Imai Y (1980) Purification of squalene epoxidase from rat liver microsomes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 96:522–528
Ono T, Nakazono K, Kosaka H (1982) Purification and partial characterization of squalene epoxidase from rat liver microsomes. Biochim Biophys Acta 709:84–90
Lamb DC, Kelly DE, Manning NJ, Kaderbhai MA, Kelly SL (1999) Biodiversity of the P450 catalytic cycle: yeast cytochrome b5/NADH cytochrome b5 reductase complex efficiently drives the entire sterol 14-demethylation (CYP51) reaction. FEBS Lett 462:283–288
Laden BP, Tang Y, Porter TD (2000) Cloning, heterologous expression, and enzymological characterization of human squalene monooxygenase. Arch Biochem Biophys 374:381–388
Lepesheva GI, Waterman MR (2007) Sterol 14alpha-demethylase cytochrome P450 (CYP51), a P450 in all biological kingdoms. Biochim Biophys Acta 1770:467–477
Keber R, Motaln H, Wagner KD, Debeljak N, Rassoulzadegan M, Acimovic J, Rozman D, Horvat S (2011) Mouse knockout of the cholesterogenic cytochrome P450 lanosterol 14alpha-demethylase (Cyp51) resembles Antley-Bixler syndrome. J Biol Chem 286:29086–29097
Bellamine A, Mangla AT, Nes WD, Waterman MR (1999) Characterization and catalytic properties of the sterol 14alpha-demethylase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:8937–8942
Lamb DC, Kaderbhai NN, Venkateswarlu K, Kelly DE, Kelly SL, Kaderbhai MA (2001) Human sterol 14alpha-demethylase activity is enhanced by the membrane-bound state of cytochrome b(5). Arch Biochem Biophys 395:78–84
Richard G, Bale SJ (1993) Autosomal recessive congenital ichthyosis. In: Pagon RA, Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Wallace SE, Amemiya A, Bean LJH, Bird TD, Dolan CR, Fong CT, Smith RJH, Stephens K (eds) GeneReviews(R). Seattle (WA)
Miller WL, Tee MK (2015) The post-translational regulation of 17,20 lyase activity. Mol Cell Endocrinol 408:99–106
Miller WL (2012) The syndrome of 17,20 lyase deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:59–67
Percy MJ, Lappin TR (2008) Recessive congenital methaemoglobinaemia: cytochrome b(5) reductase deficiency. Br J Haematol 141:298–308
Hirono H (1980) Lipids of myelin, white matter and gray matter in a case of generalized deficiency of cytochrome b5 reductase in congenital methemoglobinemia with mental retardation. Lipids 15:272–275
Hirono H (1984) Lipids of liver, kidney, spleen and muscle in a case of generalized deficiency of cytochrome b5 reductase in congenital methemoglobinemia with mental retardation. Lipids 19:60–63
Neve EP, Nordling A, Andersson TB, Hellman U, Diczfalusy U, Johansson I, Ingelman-Sundberg M (2012) Amidoxime reductase system containing cytochrome b5 type B (CYB5B) and MOSC2 is of importance for lipid synthesis in adipocyte mitochondria. J Biol Chem 287:6307–6317
Ogishima T, Kinoshita JY, Mitani F, Suematsu M, Ito A (2003) Identification of outer mitochondrial membrane cytochrome b5 as a modulator for androgen synthesis in Leydig cells. J Biol Chem 278:21204–21211
Plitzko B, Ott G, Reichmann D, Henderson CJ, Wolf CR, Mendel R, Bittner F, Clement B, Havemeyer A (2013) The involvement of mitochondrial amidoxime reducing components 1 and 2 and mitochondrial cytochrome b5 in N-reductive metabolism in human cells. J Biol Chem 288:20228–20237
Colombo S, Longhi R, Alcaro S, Ortuso F, Sprocati T, Flora A, Borgese N (2005) N-myristoylation determines dual targeting of mammalian NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase to ER and mitochondrial outer membranes by a mechanism of kinetic partitioning. J Cell Biol 168:735–745
He M, Smith LD, Chang R, Li X, Vockley J (2014) The role of sterol-C4-methyl oxidase in epidermal biology. Biochim Biophys Acta 1841:331–335
Byskov AG, Andersen CY, Leonardsen L (2002) Role of meiosis activating sterols, MAS, in induced oocyte maturation. Mol Cell Endocrinol 187:189–196
Keber R, Rozman D, Horvat S (2013) Sterols in spermatogenesis and sperm maturation. J Lipid Res 54:20–33
Honjo K, Ishibashi T, Imai Y (1985) Partial purification and characterization of lathosterol 5-desaturase from rat liver microsomes. J Biochem 97:955–959
Rossi M, D’Armiento M, Parisi I, Ferrari P, Hall CM, Cervasio M, Rivasi F, Balli F, Vecchione R, Corso G, Andria G, Parenti G (2007) Clinical phenotype of lathosterolosis. Am J Med Genet A 143:2371–2381
Krakowiak PA, Wassif CA, Kratz L, Cozma D, Kovarova M, Harris G, Grinberg A, Yang Y, Hunter AG, Tsokos M, Kelley RI, Porter FD (2003) Lathosterolosis: an inborn error of human and murine cholesterol synthesis due to lathosterol 5-desaturase deficiency. Hum Mol Genet 12:1631–1641
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
About this article
Cite this article
Porter, T.D. Electron Transfer Pathways in Cholesterol Synthesis. Lipids 50, 927–936 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-015-4065-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-015-4065-1