Abstract
The Tibetan plateau as one of the youngest orogen on the Earth was considered as the result of continent-continent collision between the Eurasian and Indian plates. The thickness and structure of the crust beneath Tibetan plateau is essential to understand deformation behavior of the plateau. Active-source seismic profiling is most available geophysical method for imaging the structure of the continental crust. The results from more than 25 active-sources seismic profiles carried out in the past twenty years were reviewed in this article. A preliminary cross crustal pattern of the Tibetan Plateau was presented and discussed. The Moho discontinuity buries at the range of 60–80 km on average and have steep ramps located roughly beneath the sutures that are compatible with the successive stacking/accretion of the former Cenozoic blocks northeastward. The deepest Moho (near 80 km) appears closely near IYS and the crustal scale thrust system beneath southern margin of Tibetan plateau suggests strong dependence on collision and non-distributed deformation there. However, the ∼20 km order of Moho offsets hardly reappears in the inline section across northern Tibetan plateau. Without a universally accepted, convincing dynamic explanation model accommodated the all of the facts seen in controlled seismic sections, but vertical thickening and northeastern shorten of the crust is quite evident and interpretable to a certain extent as the result of continent-continent collision. Simultaneously, weak geophysical signature of the BNS suggests that convergence has been accommodated perhaps partially through pure-shear thickening accompanied by removal of lower crustal material by lateral escape. Recent years the result of Moho with ∼7 km offset and long extend in south-dip angle beneath the east Kunlun orogen and a grand thrust fault at the northern margin of Qilian orogen has attract more attention to action from the northern blocks. The broad lower-velocity area in the upper-middle crust of the Lhasa block was once considered as resulted from partially melted rocks. However the low normal νP/νS ratio and the Moho stepwise rise fail to support significant partial melting in the middle-lower crust of the central-northern Tibetan plateau. Furthermore, the lower-velocity of crust occasionally disappears, and/or local thinned exhibits their non-stationary spatial distribution.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Allegre C J, Coartillot V, Tapponnier P, Hirn A, Mattauer M, Coulon C, Jaeger J J and Achache J (1984). Structure and evolution of the Himalaya-Tibet orogenic belt. Nature307(5): 17–22.
Brown L D, Zhao W J, Nelson K D, Hauck M, Alsdorf D, Ross A, Cogan M, Clark M, Liu X W and Che J K (1996). Bright spots, structure, and magmatism in southern Tibet from INDEPTH seismic reflection profiling. Science274: 1 688–1 690.
Chang C F, Pan Y S, Zheng X L and Zhang X M (1982). The Geological Tectonics of Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau. Science Press, Beijing.
Chen G Y and Zeng R S (1985). The difference of lithospheric structure between Himalayan mountain and Tibetan plateau from surface wave dispersion. Acta Geophysica Sinica28(Suppl.): 161–173 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Christensen N I and Mooney W D (1995). Seismic velocity structure and composition of the continental crust: a global view. J Geophys Res100:9 761–9 788.
Cui Z Z, Chen J P and Wu L (1996). Deep crustal structure and tectonics of Huashixia-Jianyang profile. Geological Publish Houses, Beijing.
Cui Z Z, Li Q S, Meng L S and Guan Y (1999). Golmud-Ejin Qi Lithospherical Stucture and Deep Tectonic. Geological Publish Houses, Beijing (in Chinese).
Cui Z Z, Li Q S, Wu C D, Yin Z X and Liu H B (1995). The crustal and deep tectonics in Golmud-Ejin Qi GGT. Chinese J Geophys38(Suppl.): 15–28 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Ding Z F, Zeng R S, Wu T and Frances (1992). Pn velocity and Moho interface relief beneath Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Acta Seismologica Sinica 14(Suppl.): 592–599 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Galvé A, Hirn A, Jiang M, Gallart J, Voogd B, Lépine J C, Diaz J, Wang Y X and Qian H (2002a). Modes of raising northeastern Tibet probed by explosion seismology. Earth Planet Sci Lett203: 35–43.
Galvé A, Sapin M, Hirn A, Diaz J, Laigle M and Gallart J (2002b). Complex images of Moho and Variation of νP/νS across the Himalaya and South Tibet, from a joint receive-function and wide-angle-reflection approach. Geophys Res Lett29(24): 351–354.
Gao R and Wu G. J (1995). Geophysical model and geodynamic process of Yadong-Golmud geoscience transect on Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Journal of Changchun University of Earth Sciences25(3): 241–250 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Gao R, Liu H, Li Q, Li P, Yao P and Huang D (2000a). A deep seismic reflection profile across Altyn fault belt. In: Earth Science Frontiers ed. The 15th Himalaya-Karakorum-Tibet Workshop Abstract Volume, 7(Suppl.):205.
Gao R, Lu Z W, Li Q S, Guan Y, Zhang J S, He R Z and Huang L Y (2005b). Geophysical survey and geodynamic study of crust and upper mantle in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Episodes28(4): 263–273.
Gao R, Huang D, Lu D, Li Y K, Kuang C Y, Li Q S, Feng R J and Guan Y (2000b). Deep seismic reflection profile across the ncture zone between the Tarim basin and the West Kunlun Mountains. Chinese Science Bulletin45(17): 2 281–2 286.
Gao R, Ma Y S and Zhu X. (2005a). The lithospheric structures of the Songpan block in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau—revelation from investigation of the deep seismic profile: Geology Alpine, 20th Himalayan-Karakoruam-Tibet Workshop Special extended abstracts, Aussois France, 44.
Griot D A, Montagner J P and Tapponnier P. (1998). Phase velocity structure from Rayleigh and Love waves in Tibet and its neighboring regions. J Geophys Res103: 21 215–21 232.
Haines S S, Klemperer S L, Larry Brown, Guo J R, Mechie J, Meissner R, Ross A and Zhao W J (2003). INDEPTH-III seismic data: From surface observations to deep crustal process in Tibet. Tectonics22(1): 1–18.
Hauck M L, Nelson K D, Brown L D, Zhao W J and Ross R (1998). Crustal structure of the Himalaya orogen at ∼90° east longitude from Project INDEPTH deep reflection profile. Tectonics17(4): 481–500.
Hirn A, Nercessian A, Sapin M, Jobert G, Xu Z X, Gao E Y, Lu D Y and Teng J W (1984a). Lhasa block and bordering sutures, a continuation of a 500-km Moho traverse through Tibet. Nature307(5946): 25–27.
Hirn A, Lepine J C, Jobert T G, Sapin M, Wittlinger G, Xu Z X, Gao E Y, Wang X J, Teng J W, Xiong S B, Pandey M R and Talte J M (1984b). Crust structure and variability of the Himalayan border of Tibet. Nature307(5946): 23–25.
Institute of Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciecces (1981). Explosion seismic study for velocity distribution and structure of the crust and upper mantle from Damxung to Yadong of Xizang Plateau. Acta Geophysica Sinica24(2): 155–170 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Kind R, Ni J, Zhao W, Wu J, Yuan X, Zhao L, Sandvol E, Reese C, Nabelek J and Hearn T (1996). Evidence from earthquake data for a partially molten crustal layer in southern Tibet. Science274: 1 692–1 694.
Kind R, Yuan X, Saul J, Nelson D, Sobolev S V, Mechie J, Zhao W, Kosarev G., Ni J, Achauer U and Jiang M (2002). Seismic images of crust and upper mantle beneath Tibet: evidence for Eurasian plate subduction. Science298:1 219–1 221.
Li Q S, Gao R, Lu D Y, Li J W, Fan J Y, Zhang Z Y, Liu W, Li Y K, Yan Q R, Li D X and Wide angle team (2002). Tarim underthrust beneath western Kunlun-Evidences from wide-angle seismic sounding. Journal of Asia Earth Sciences20: 247–253.
Li Q S, Gao R, Lu D Y, Li J W, Fan J Y, Xiong X M, Zhang Z Y, Liu W, Li Y K, Yan Q R and Li D X (2001). An explosive seismic sounding profile across the transition zone between west Kunlun Mts. and Tarim basin. Science in China (Series D) 44(7): 666–672.
Li Q S, Peng S P and Gao R (2004a). A review on the Moho discontinuity beneath the Tibetan Plateau. Geological Review50(6): 598–612 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Li Q S, Peng S P, Gao R, Guan Y and Fan J Y (2004b). Deep tectonic background of the MS8.1 earthquake in the east Kunlun. Acta Geoscientica Sinica25(1): 11–16 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Li Q S (2004c). The seismology study of lithosphere structure of continental- continental collision zone in Tibetan Plateau. Thesis for the PH. Doctorate of China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing.
Li S L, Zhang X K and Zhang C K (2002). A preliminary study on the crustal velocity structure of Maqin-Lanzhou-Jingbian by means of deep seismic sounding profile. Chinese J Geophys 45(2): 210–217 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Li T D (1995). The uplifting process and mechanism of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Acta Geoscientia Sinica (1): 1–9 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Liu H B, Kong X R, Gao R and Li Q S. (2004). Deep seismic probe of the crust and upper mantle structure across the western part of Yalung Zangbo Suture. In: Zheng D, Yao T D et al eds. Uplifting of Tibetan Plateau With its Environmental Effects. Science Press, Beijing, 60–65 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Lu D Y and Chen J P (1987). Deep Structure of the crust in Tuotuohe-Golmud region of north Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. Geology Review33(2): 122–128.
Lu D Y, Huang L Y, Chen J P, Li X P, Hu A B, Wang Y Z, Wang Z C, Liu W T and Zhang Z Y (1990). Structural model and velocity dispersion characteristics of the crust and upper mantle in Tuotuohe-Golmud region of north Qinghai-Xizang Plateau. In: Geophysical Memoir on Xizang-Qinghai Plateau. China Geological Publishing House, Beijing, 51–62.
Lü Q T, Jiang M and Ma K Y (1996). 3-D travel time tomography inversion and the deep structure of southern Tibet. Acta Seismologica Sinica18(4): 451–459 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Makovsky Y, Klempere S L, Ratschbacher L, Brown, L D, Li M, Zhao W J and Meng F L. (1996). INDEPTH wide-angle reflection observation of P-wave-to-S-wave conversion from crustal bright spots in Tibet. Science274: 1 690–1 691.
Mayakovsky Y, Klemperer S L, Ratschbacher and Alsdorf D (1999). Midcrustal reflector on INDEPTH wide-angle profiling: An ophiolitic slab beneath the India-Asia suture in southern Tibet? Tectonics18(5): 793–808.
Mooney W D and Brocher T M (1987). Coincident seismic reflection/refraction studies of the continent lithosphere. Rev Geophys25: 723–742.
Nelson K D, Zhao W J, Brown L D, Kuo J, Che J K, Liu X W, Klemperer S L, Marovsky Y, Meissner R, Mechie J, Kind R, Wenzel F, Ni J, Nabelek J, Chen L S, Tan H D, Wei W B, Jones A G, Booker J, Unsworth M, Kidd W, Hauck M, Alsdorf D, Ross A, Cogan M, Wu C D, Sandvol E and Edwards M (1996). Partially molten middle crust beneath Southern Tibet: Synthesis of project INDEPTH results. Science274: 1 684–1 688.
Pelkum S, Monsalve G, Sheehan A, Pandey M R, Sapkota S, Bilham R and Wu F (2005). Imaging the Indian subcontinent beneath the Himalaya. Nature435: 1 222–1 225.
Ross A, Brown L, Passakorn P, Nelson K D, Klemperer S, Haines S, Zhao W J and Guo J R (2004). Deep reflection surveying in central Tibet: lower-crustal layering and crustal flow. Geophys J Int156: 115–128.
Sapin M, Wang X J, Hirn A and Xu Z X (1985). A seismic structure sounding in the crust of Lhasa block, Tibet. Ann Geophys3: 637–648.
Tapponnier P, Xu Z Q, Roger F, Meyer B, Arnaud N, Wittlinger G, Yang J S (2001). Oblique stepwise rise and Growth of the Tibet Plateau. Science294(23): 1 671–1 677.
Teng J W (1974). Deep reflected waves and the structure of the earth crust of the eastern part of Qaidam basin. Acta Geophysica Sinica17(2): 121–134 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Teng J W, Xiong S B, Yin Z X, Xu Z X, Wang X T and Lu D Y (1983). Structure of the crust and upper mantle pattern and velocity distributional characteristics in the Northern Himalayan mountain region. Acta Geophysica Sinica26(6): 525–540 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Teng J W, Yin Z X and Xiong S B (1985). Crustal structure and velocity distribution beneath Selin Co-Peng Co-Na Qu-Suo County region in northern Xizang Plateau. Acta Geophysica Sinica28(Suppl.): 28–42 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Vergne J, Wittlinger G, Qian H, Tapponnier P, Poupinet G, Jiang M, Herquel G and Paul A (2002). Seismic evidence for stepwise thickening of the crust across the NE Tibetan Plateau. Earth Planet Sci Lett 203: 25–33.
Wang C Y, Han W B, Wu J P, Lou H and Bai Z M (2003a). Crustal structure beneath the Songpan-Garze orogenic belt. Acta Seismologica Sinica16(3): 237–250.
Wang C Y, Wu J P and Lou H (2003b). Crustal P-wave velocity structure in western Sichuan and eastern Tibet. Science in China (Series D) 33(Suppl.): 181–189 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Wang Y X and Qian H (2000). Study of crustal velocity structure in the east Qinghai. Earth Science Frontiers7(4): 568–579 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Wittlinger G, Tapponnier P, Poupinet G, Jiang M, Shi D, Herquel G and Masson F (1998). Tomographic evidence for Localized lithospheric shear along the Altyn Tagh fault. Science282: 74–76.
Wu G J, Gao R, Yu Q F, Cheng Q Y, Meng L S, Dong X B, Cui Z Z, Yin Z X, Shen X J and Zhou Y X (1991). Intergrated investigations of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau along the Yadong-Golmud geoscience transect. Acta Geophysica Sinica34(5): 552–562 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Wu J P, Ming Y H, Ye T L and Zeng R S (1998). Upper mantle velocity structure in the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau from inversion of body waveforms. Acta Geophysica Sinica41(Suppl.): 15–25 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Wu Q J and Zeng R S (1998). The crustal structure of Qinghai-Xizang Plateau inferred from broadband teleseismic waveform. Acta Geophysica Sinica41(5): 669–679 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Wu X Z, Wu C L, Lu J and Wu J (1995). Research on the fine crustal structure of the northern Qilian-Hexi Corridor by deep seismic reflection. Chinese J Geophys38(Suppl.): 29–35 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Xiong S B and Liu H B (1997). Crustal structure in western Tibetan Plateau. Chinese Science Bulletin42(8): 665–668.
Xiong S B, Teng J W and Yin Z X (1985). The thickness of the crust and undu lation of discontinuity in Xizang (Tibet) Plateau. Acta Geophysica Sinica28(Suppl.): 16–27 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Xu X Z, Qi X F, Yang C L and Dang S J (1993). Results of man-made explosion seismic sounding from Huashixia (in Qinghai) to Aksay (in Gansu). In: Annual of the Chinese Geophysical Society. Seismological Press, Beijing, 80.
Yin A and Mark H T (2000). Geologic evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen. Annu Earth Planet Sci28: 211–280.
Yuan X H, Ni J, Kind R, Mechie J and Sandvol E (1997). Lithspheric and upper mantle structure of southern Tibet from a seismological passive source experiment. J Geophys Res102(B12): 27 491–27 500.
Zeng R S and Gan R J (1961). Reflected waves from crustal interface in western Qaidam Basin. Acta Geophysica Sinica10(1): 120–125 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zeng R S, Ding Z F and Wu Q J (1998). The crustal structure from Himalaya to Qilian and its implications for continent-continent collision process. Chinese J Geophys41(1): 49–60 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zeng R S, Ding Z F, Wu Q J and Wu J P (2000). Seismological evidence for the multiple income crustal subductions in Himalayas and southern Tibet. Chinese J Geophys43(6): 780–797 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Wang Q, Zhang P Z, Freymueller J T, Billham R, Larson M K, Lai X, You X, Niu Z J, Wu j C, Li Y X, Liu J N, Yang Z Q and Chen Q Z (2001). Present-Day Crustal Deformation in China Constrained by Global Positioning System Measuremments. Science294: 574–577.
Zhang X K, Jia S X, Zhao J R, Zhang C K, Yang J, Wang F Y, Zhang J S, Liu B. F, Sun G W and Pan S Z (2008). Crustal structures beneath West Qinling — East Kunlun orogen and its adjacent area —Results of wide angle seismic reflection and refraction experiment. Chinese J Geophys51(2): 439–450 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhang Z J, Wang G J and Sun R M (2002a). P-wave structure along 1 100 km long wide-angle seismic profile in the eastern Tibet. AGU, Japan.
Zhang Z J, Li Y K, Wang G J, Teng J W, Klemplerer S, Li J W, Fan J Y and Chen Y (2001). E-W crustal structure under the northern Tibet and ‘down-bowing’ Moho under the northern Tibet revealed by wide angle seismic profile. Science in China (Series D) 31(11): 881–888 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhang Z J, Teng J W, Li Y K, Klemperer S and Yang L Q (2002b). Crustal velocity structure and eastward escaping of crustal material in the southern Tibet. Science in China (Series D) 32(10): 793–798 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhao J, Mooney W D, Zhang X, Li Z, Jin Z and Okaya N (2006). Crustal structure across the Altyn Tagh Range at the northern margin of the Tibetan Plateau and tectonic implications. Earth Planet Sci Lett241: 804–814.
Zhao J M, Zhang X K, Wang S X, Lu B, Zhang J and Lu M A (2001). The lithospheric structure and dynamic process of the Junggar Basin, the Tianshan Orogenic Belt, the Tarim Basin, the Altun Orogenic Belt, the Qaidam Basin, and the Kunlun Orogenic Belt (northern margin). In: Chinese Geophysical Society ed. Annual of the Chinese Geophysical Society, 13.
Zhao J M, Zhang X K, Deng H Z and Zhang J (2003). Q value structure of the upper crust along the profile from Baicheng to Da Qaidam. Chinese J Geophys46(4): 503–509 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhao W J, Mechie J, Brown L D, Guo J, Haines S, Hearn T, Klemperer S L, Ma Y S, Meissner R, Nelson K D, Ni J F, Pananont P, Rapine R, Ross A and Saul J (2001). Crustal structure of central Tibet as derived from INDEPTH wide-angle seismic data. Geophys J Int145: 486–498.
Zhao W J, Nelson K D and Meissner R (1997). Advances of INDEPTH-A deep profiling study in Tibet and the Himalayas. Episodes20(4): 266–272
Zhao W J, Nelson K D and Project INDEPTH Team (1993). Deep seismic reflection evidence for continental underthrusting beneath southern Tibet. Nature366(9): 557–559.
Zhao W J, Xue G Q, Zhao X, Wu Z H, Shi D N, Liu K, Jiang W, Xiong J Y and INDEPTH Team (2004). Seismic imaging of the subducting Indian lithosphere beneath northern Tibet. Acta Geoscientia Sinica25(1): 1–10 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Zhu L P and Helmberger D V (1998). Moho offset across the northern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Science281: 1 170–1 172.
Zhuang Z, Fu Z W, Lu Z L, Hu J F, Song Z H, Chen G Y, An C Q and Chen L H (1992). 3-D shear velocity model of crust and upper mantle beneath the Tibetan Plateau and its adjacent regions. Acta Geophysica Sinica35(6): 694–709 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
About this article
Cite this article
Li, Q., Gao, R., Lu, Z. et al. The thickness and structural characteristics of the crust across Tibetan plateau from active-sources seismic profiles. Earthq Sci 22, 21–31 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11589-009-0021-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11589-009-0021-6