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Ulama, the state, & war: community Islamic leaders in the Aceh conflict

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Abstract

In recent years, much has been said of the relationship between the headmasters of Islamic boarding schools (ulama), the state, and war. Hoping to clarify how ulama behave in times of war and why they react as they do, I look to the recent secessionist conflict in Aceh, Indonesia. Based on extensive village fieldwork, I find that in response to the conflict, Aceh’s ulama were divided; some supported the rebels, some supported the state, and some remained neutral. These positions were largely predicted by combatant control, a pragmatic response to conflict dynamics. Sub-regional comparisons, temporal comparisons, and interviews suggest that while many ulama sided with power, they also sided against human rights abuses, a concern for social justice which may be rooted in religious sentiment after all.

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Notes

  1. Many terrorism experts find radical Islamists everywhere, even in Aceh, where rebels apparently sought “an independent Islamic state governed by Sharia” (Abuza 2003, 66). For criticisms, see Connors 2007.

  2. It is often believed that Muslims living under non-Muslim states “seem to be incomplete if not illegitimate” and have a duty to rebel or emigrate (Voll 1987, 126). There are, of course, many exceptions, as in South Africa and continued Muslim migration to Europe and North America.

  3. Islam provides a crucial source of education in states which are too weak to provide it themselves. It should not be forgotten that, in western countries, the church was the major source of schools and other public goods, with state involvement being relatively recent.

  4. Such schools provide inconsistent instruction and rarely prepare students for employment. The most heated criticism of such schools often comes not from western commentators, but from Islamic reformers.

  5. The Malaysian Islamic Party and Islamic Youth Movement grew by championing social issues, prompting Mahathir “to take the initiative in an Islamization process” (Camroux 1996, 857).

  6. Reclusive movements tend to be “ambivalent in their attitude to the government. Some have maintained a neutral stance despite obvious tensions over the nature and identity” of the state (Barraclough 1983, 959).

  7. Returning to Holy texts to escape politics should be distinguished from Islamism, which entails a return to texts, not as a form of retreat, but instead “an intervention in the political system” (Halliday 1995, 400).

  8. Nurcholish Madjid (1939–2005) felt that tying Islam to politics had the effect of sacralizing political parties, debasing Islam by elevating the profane (Barton 1997, 331).

  9. Esposito (1999, 51–52) makes a similar classification.

  10. In Arabic, alim is the singular form, but in Acehnese and Indonesian, ‘ulama’ is both singular and plural. In Aceh, alim instead refers to a pious individual concerned with social justice (keadilan).

  11. The MPU was recast as Aceh’s branch of the Indonesian Ulama Council (Majelis Ulama Indonesia, MUI) in the 1970s, but in the reformasi era, once again became known as the MPU.

  12. The names of interviewees provided below are not pseudonyms. To my surprise, ulama were happy to agree to their names and locations appearing in my research. Where names are not provided, it is because respondents requested anonymity.

  13. Interview with Teungku Faisal, Secretary General of the HUDA (Himpunan Ulama Dayah Aceh), Banda Aceh (26 JAN 08).

  14. Interview with Keucik M. Hasjim Usman, Lembah Seulawah, Aceh Besar (24 JAN 08)

  15. Interview with Teungku Faisal, Secretary General of the HUDA, Banda Aceh (26 JAN 08).

  16. Interview with Teungku Abu Ismail Yacoob, Vice President of the MPU (Majelis Permusyawaratan Ulama), Banda Aceh (26 JAN 08).

  17. Interviews in Aceh Besar (OCT 07).

  18. Interview with Teungku Haji Burhanuddin Ahmad, Sama Dua, South Aceh (19 APR 09).

  19. Interview with Teungku Syamsuddin, Saree, Aceh Besar (28 JAN 08).

  20. Interview with Teungku Bukhari Husni, Lawe Sumur, Aceh Tenggara (08 APR 09)

  21. Interview with Teungku Jainal, Jangar, Aceh Tenggara (08 APR 09).

  22. Interview with Keucik, Dusun, and Mukim, Pancah, Aceh Besar (30 JAN 08).

  23. Interviews with Teungku Lukman Ramli, Tapak Tuan, South Aceh (17 APR 09) and Teungku Haji Burhanuddin Ahmad, Panton Luas, South Aceh (19 APR 09). For an ulama in West Aceh, “with all the trouble around, the most important thing I could do was focus on creating a more peaceful, more Islamic society.” Discussion with Ulama, Nagan Raya (December 2006).

  24. Interview with Teungku Ramli, Saree, Aceh Besar (28 JAN 08).

  25. Interview with Teungku Kamaruddin, Saree, Aceh Besar (30 JAN 08).

  26. Interview with Panglima GAM Kowboy Effendi, Aceh Utara (04 FEB 08).

  27. Interview with Teungku Haji Burhanuddin Ahmad, Panton Luas, South Aceh (19 APR 09).

  28. Interview with Panglima GAM Udin, Bireuen (03 NOV 07).

  29. Interview with Teungku Yahya Abdullah, GAM advisor and Judge, Bireuen (04 FEB 08).

  30. The Wali sees the primary challenge as keeping GAM unified, and avoiding “GAM Rambo.” Interview with Teungku Mohammad Wali al-Qalidi, Teunah Meerah, Aceh Utara (04 FEB 08).

  31. Interview with Javanese IDPs, Saree, Aceh Besar (29 OCT 07); activists, Banda Aceh (25 JAN 08)

  32. The Peusijuek originated as a means to make social changes more gradual, blessing new houses or returns from extended absences. There are heated debates in Aceh regarding whether the tradition is consistent with Islam. Especially contentious is the sprinkling of holy water and seeds over guests. One scholar suggests that the practice is Indian, rejecting it as unIslamic (Fauzy 2008).

  33. Interview with Mohammad Wali al-Qalidi, Teunah Meerah, Aceh Utara (04 FEB 08).

  34. One ulama noted that the ceremony is not exclusive to Muslims: “every ethnic group has its own ceremony to welcome people.” Interview with Teungku Abdullah, Saree, Aceh Besar (28 JAN 08).

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Acknowledgements

Funding for this project was provided by the Canadian Consortium on Human Security (CCHS), the Security and Defense Forum (SDF), and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC). The author would like to thank Nathan Allen, Pak Bahagia, Juanda Djamal, Diane Mauzy, Siswanto, James Wellman, and the anonymous reviewers selected by Contemporary Islam for their insight and assistance.

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  1. Department of Political Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

    Shane Joshua Barter

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Barter, S.J. Ulama, the state, & war: community Islamic leaders in the Aceh conflict. Cont Islam 5, 19–36 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-010-0141-8

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