Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Urban Environment and Sexual Risk Behavior among Men who have Sex with Men

  • Published:
Journal of Urban Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Increasingly, studies show that characteristics of the urban environment influence a wide variety of health behaviors and disease outcomes, yet few studies have focused on the sexual risk behaviors of men who have sex with men (MSM). This focus is important as many gay men reside in or move to urban areas, and sexual risk behaviors and associated outcomes have increased among some urban MSM in recent years. As interventions aimed at changing individual-level risk behaviors have shown mainly short-term effects, consideration of broader environmental influences is needed. Previous efforts to assess the influence of environmental characteristics on sexual behaviors and related health outcomes among the general population have generally applied three theories as explanatory models: physical disorder, social disorganization and social norms theories. In these models, the intervening mechanisms specified to link environmental characteristics to individual-level outcomes include stress, collective efficacy, and social influence processes, respectively. Whether these models can be empirically supported in generating inferences about the sexual behavior of urban MSM is underdeveloped. Conceptualizing sexual risk among MSM to include social and physical environmental characteristics provides a basis for generating novel and holistic disease prevention and health promotion interventions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Figure 1
Figure 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Torian LV, Weisfuse IB, Makki HA, et al. Trends in HIV seroprevalence in men who have sex with men: New York City Department of Health sexually transmitted disease clinics, 1988–1993. AIDS. 1996 February;10(2):187–192.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. van Griensven GJ, Hessol NA, Koblin BA, et al. Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection among homosexual men participating in hepatitis B vaccine trials in Amsterdam, New York City, and San Francisco, 1978–1990. Am J Epidemiol. 1993 April 15;137(8):909–915.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Geisler WM, Whittington WL, Suchland RJ, Stamm WE. Epidemiology of anorectal chlamydial and gonococcal infections among men having sex with men in Seattle: utilizing serovar and auxotype strain typing. Sex Transm Dis. 2002 April;29(4):189–195.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Chen SY, Gibson S, Katz MH, et al. Continuing increases in sexual risk behavior and sexually transmitted diseases among men who have sex with men: San Francisco, California, 1999–2001, USA. Am J Public Health. 2002 September;92(9):1387–1388.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Trends in primary and secondary syphilis and HIV infections in men who have sex with men—San Francisco and Los Angeles, California, 1998–2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2004 July 9;53(26):575–578.

  6. Hogg RS, Weber AE, Chan K, et al. Increasing incidence of HIV infections among young gay and bisexual men in Vancouver. AIDS. 2001 July 6;15(10):1321–1322.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Katz MH, Schwarcz SK, Kellogg TA, et al. Impact of highly active antiretroviral treatment on HIV seroincidence among men who have sex with men: San Francisco. Am J Public Health. 2002 March;92(3):388–394.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Kellogg T, McFarland W, Katz M. Recent increases in HIV seroconversion among repeat anonymous testers in San Francisco. AIDS. 1999 November 12;13(16):2303–2304.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Schwarcz S, Kellogg T, McFarland W, et al. Differences in the temporal trends of HIV seroincidence and seroprevalence among sexually transmitted disease clinic patients, 1989–1998: application of the serologic testing algorithm for recent HIV seroconversion. Am J Epidemiol. 2001 May 15;153(10):925–934.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. New York City Deparment of Health. Bureau of STD Control Surveillance Report. 2000.

  11. Increases in unsafe sex and rectal gonorrhea among men who have sex with men—San Francisco, California, 1994–1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1999 January 29;48(3):45–48.

  12. Nieuwenhuis RF, Ossewaarde JM, Gotz HM, et al. Resurgence of lymphogranuloma venereum in Western Europe: an outbreak of Chlamydia trachomatis serovar l2 proctitis in The Netherlands among men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis. 2004 October 1;39(7):996–1003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Increases in HIV diagnoses—29 States, 1999–2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003 November 28;52(47):1145–1148.

  14. Unrecognized HIV infection, risk behaviors, and perceptions of risk among youngblack men who have sex with men-six US cities. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002 August 23;51(33):733–736.

  15. Demmer C. Impact of improved treatments on perceptions about HIV and safer sex among inner-city HIV-infected men and women. J Community Health. 2002 February;27(1):63–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Kelly JA, Hoffman RG, Rompa D, Gray M. Protease inhibitor combination therapies and perceptions of gay men regarding AIDS severity and the need to maintain safer sex. AIDS. 1998 July 9;12(10):F91–F95.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Suarez TP, Kelly JA, Pinkerton SD, et al. Influence of a partner's HIV serostatus, use of highly active antiretroviral therapy, and viral load on perceptions of sexual risk behavior in a community sample of men who have sex with men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001 December 15;28(5):471–477.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Halkitis PN, Wilton L, Drescher J. Introduction: Why barebacking? In: Halkitis P, Wilton L, Drescher J, eds. Barebacking: Psychosocial and Public Health Approaches. Binghamton: Haworth Press; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Myers HF, Javanbakht M, Martinez M, Obediah S. Psychosocial predictors of risky sexual behaviors in African American men: implications for prevention. AIDS Educ Prev. 2003 February;15(1 Suppl A):66–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Peterson JL, Folkman S, Bakeman R. Stress, coping, HIV status, psychosocial resources, and depressive mood in African American gay, bisexual, and heterosexual men. Am J Community Psychol. 1996 August;24(4):461–487.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Semple SJ, Patterson TL, Grant I. Psychosocial predictors of unprotected anal intercourse in a sample of HIV positive gay men who volunteer for a sexual risk reduction intervention. AIDS Educ Prev. 2000 October;12(5):416–430.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Stall R, Mills TC, Williamson J, et al. Association of co-occurring psychosocial health problems and increased vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among urban men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health. 2003 June;93(6):939–942.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Bailey SL, Latka MH, Hagan H, et al. Unprotected anal intercourse among young male injection drug users (IDUS) who have sex with men (MSM): A report from the collaborative injection drug use study-III/drug users intervention trial. Natl Prev Conf. Jun 12-15, 2005 [abstract no. M2-A0303].

  24. Clatts MC, Goldsamt L, Neaigus A, Welle DL. The social course of drug injection and sexual activity among YMSM and other high-risk youth: an agenda for future research. J Urban Health. 2003 December;80(4 Suppl 3):iii26–iii39.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Colfax GN, Mansergh G, Guzman R, et al. Drug use and sexual risk behavior among gay and bisexual men who attend circuit parties: a venue-based comparison. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001 December 1;28(4):373–379.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Crosby GM, Stall RD, Paul JP, Barrett DC. Alcohol and drug use patterns have declined between generations of younger gay-bisexual men in San Francisco. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998 November 1;52(3):177–182.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Halkitis PN, Parsons JT, Stirratt MJ. A double epidemic: crystal methamphetamine drug use in relation to HIV transmission among gay men. J Homosex. 2001;41(2):17–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Halkitis PN, Parsons JT. Recreational drug use and HIV risk sexual behavior among men frequenting urban gay venues. J Gay Lesbian Soc Serv. 2002;14(4):19–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Paul JP, Barrett DC, Crosby GM, Stall RD. Longitudinal changes in alcohol and drug use among men seen at a gay-specific substance abuse treatment agency. J Stud Alcohol. 1996 September;57(5):475–485.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Paul JP, Stall R, Davis F. Sexual risk for HIV transmission among gay/bisexual men in substance-abuse treatment. AIDS Educ Prev. 1993;5(1):11–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Paul JP, Stall RD, Crosby GM, Barrett DC, Midanik LT. Correlates of sexual risk-taking among gay male substance abusers. Addiction. 1994 August;89(8):971–983.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Ross MW, Rosser BRS, Bauer GR, et al. Drug use, unsafe sexual behavior, and internalized homonegativity in men who have sex with men. AIDS Behav. 2001;5(1):97–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Stall R, Paul JP, Greenwood G, et al. Alcohol use, drug use and alcohol-related problems among men who have sex with men: the Urban Men’s Health Study. Addiction. 2001 November;96(11):1589–1601.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Stall R, Wiley J. A comparison of alcohol and drug use patterns of homosexual and heterosexual men: the San Francisco Men's Health Study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1988 October;22(1–2):63–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Huebner DM, Gerend MA. The relation between beliefs about drug treatments for HIV and sexual risk behavior in gay and bisexual men. Ann Behav Med. 2001;23(4):304–312.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. DiClemente RJ, Funkhouser E, Wingood G, Fawal H, Holmberg SD, Vermund SH. Protease inhibitor combination therapy and decreased condom use among gay men. South Med J. 2002 April;95(4):421–425.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Elford J, Bolding G, Maguire M, Sherr L. Combination therapies for HIV and sexual risk behavior among gay men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000 March 1;23(3):266–271.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Miller M, Meyer L, Boufassa F, et al. Sexual behavior changes and protease inhibitor therapy. SEROCO Study Group. AIDS. 2000 March 10;14(4):F33–F39.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Remien RH, Wagner G, Carballo-Dieguez A, Dolezal C. Who may be engaging in high-risk sex due to medical treatment advances? AIDS. 1998 August 20;12(12):1560–1561.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Van DV, Prestage G, Crawford J, Grulich A, Kippax S. Sexual risk behaviour increases and is associted with HIV optimism among HIV-negative and HIV-positive gay men in Sydney over the 4 year period to February 2000. AIDS. 2000 December 22;14(18):2951–2953.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Ostrow DE, Fox KJ, Chmiel JS, et al. Attitudes towards highly active antiretroviral therapy are associated with sexual risk taking among HIV-infected and uninfected homosexual men. AIDS. 2002 March 29;16(5):775–780.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Stolte IG, Coutinho RA. Risk behaviour and sexually transmitted diseases are on the rise in gay men, but what is happening with HIV? Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2002 February;15(1):37–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Bajos N. Social factors and the process of risk construction in HIV sexual transmission. AIDS Care. 1997 April;9(2):227–237.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Meyer I. Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychol Bull. 2003;129(5):674–697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Rhodes JE, Jason LA. A social stress model of substance abuse. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1990 August;58(4):395–401.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Seage GR III, Mayer KH, Wold C, et al. The social context of drinking, drug use, and unsafe sex in the Boston Young Men Study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998 April 1;17(4):368–375.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Friedman SR, Perlis T, Des J. Laws prohibiting over-the-counter syringe sales to injection drug users: relations to population density, HIV prevalence, and HIV incidence. Am J Public Health. 2001 May;91(5):791–793.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Ellingson S, Schroeder K. Race and the construction of same-sex sex markets in four Chicago neighborhoods. In: Laumann E, Ellingson S, Mahay J, Paik A, Youm Y, eds. The Sexual Organization of the City. Chicago: University of Chicago; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Fullilove MT, McGuire L. Introduction to the special issue on sexuality and place. J Sex Res. 2005;42(1):1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Link B, Phelan J. Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease. J Health Soc Behav. 1995;35:80–94.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Johnson RA, Gerstein DR, Pach A III, Cerbone FG, Brown J. HIV risk behaviors in African–American drug injector networks: implications of injection-partner mixing and partnership characteristics. Addiction. 2002 August;97(8):1011–1024.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Koblin B, Chesney M, Coates T. Effects of a behavioural intervention to reduce acquisition of HIV infection among men who have sex with men: the EXPLORE randomised controlled study. Lancet. 2004 July 3;364(9428):41–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Kegeles SM, Rebchook GM, Hays RB, et al. From science to application: the development of an intervention package. AIDS Educ Prev. 2000;12(5 Suppl):62–74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Parker RG, Easton D, Klein CH. Structural barriers and facilitators in HIV prevention: a review of international research. AIDS. 2000 June;14(Suppl 1):S22–S32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Kelly JA, St Lawrence JS, Diaz YE, et al. HIV risk behavior reduction following intervention with key opinion leaders of population: an experimental analysis. Am J Public Health. 1991 February;81(2):168–171.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Kelly JA, St Lawrence JS, Stevenson LY, et al. Community AIDS/HIV risk reduction: the effects of endorsements by popular people in three cities. Am J Public Health. 1992 November;82(11):1483–1489.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Kelly JA. Popular opinion leaders and HIV prevention peer education: resolving discrepant findings, and implications for the development of effective community programmes. AIDS Care. 2004 February;16(2):139–150.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Stall R, Mills TC, Williamson J, et al. Association of co-occurring psychosocial health problems and increased vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among urban men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health. 2003 June;93(6):939–942.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Weston K. Get thee to a big city: sexual imagery and the great gay migration. Gay Lesbian Q. 1995;2:253–277.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Kenney M. Remember, Stonewall was a riot: understanding gay and lesbian experience in the city. Planning Theory. 1995;13:73–87.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Gates G, Ost J. The Gay and Lesbian Atlas. Washington, District of Columbia: Urban Institute Press; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  62. D'Emilio J. Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of A Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Torian LV, Makki HA, Menzies IB, Murrill CS, Weisfuse IB. HIV infection in men who have sex with men, New York City Department of Health sexually transmitted disease clinics, 1990–1999: a decade of serosurveillance finds that racial disparities and associations between HIV and gonorrhea persist. Sex Transm Dis. 2002 February;29(2):73–78.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. HIV/AIDS among racial/ethnic minority men who have sex with men—United States, 1989–1998. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2000 January 14;49(1):4–11.

  65. Hart T, Peterson JL. Community Intervention Trial for Youth Study Team. Predictors of risky sexual behavior among young African American men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health. 2004 July;94(7):1122–1124.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Heckman TG, Kelly JA, Bogart LM, Kalichman SC, Rompa DJ. HIV risk differences between African–American and white men who have sex with men. J Natl Med Assoc. 1999 February;91(2):92–100.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Peterson JL, Coates TJ, Catania J, et al. Evaluation of an HIV risk reduction intervention among African–American homosexual and bisexual men. AIDS. 1996 March;10(3):319–325.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Siegel K, Schrimshaw EW, Karus D. Racial disparities in sexual risk behaviors and drug use among older gay/bisexual and heterosexual men living with HIV/AIDS. J Natl Med Assoc. 2004 February;96(2):215–223.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Catania JA, Osmond D, Stall RD, et al. The continuing HIV epidemic among men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health. 2001 June;91(6):907–914.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. South SJ, Crowder KD. Neighborhood effects on family formation: concentrated poverty and beyond. Am Soc Rev. 1999;64:113–132.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Boardman JD, Finch BK, Ellison CG, Williams DR, Jackson JS. Neighborhood disadvantage, stress, and drug use among adults. J Health Soc Behav. 2001 June;42(2):151–165.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Gephart M, Brooks-Gun J. Introduction. In: Duncan G, Aber L, Brooks-Gunn J, eds. Neighborhood Poverty: Policy Implications in Studying Neighborhoods. New York: Russell Sage; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Browning CR, Cagney KA. Moving beyond poverty: neighborhood structure, social processes, and health. J Health Soc Behav. 2003 December;44(4):552–571.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Cattell V. Poor people, poor places, and poor health: the mediating role of social networks and social capital. Soc Sci Med. 2001 May;52(10):1501–1516.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Cohen DA, Farley TA, Mason K. Why is poverty unhealthy? Social and physical mediators. Soc Sci Med. 2003 November;57(9):1631–1641.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Fang J, Madhavan S, Bosworth W, Alderman MH. Residential segregation and mortality in New York City. Soc Sci Med. 1998 August;47(4):469–476.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Acevedo-Garcia D. Residential segregation and the epidemiology of infectious diseases. Soc Sci Med. 2000 October;51(8):1143–1161.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Acevedo-Garcia D. Zip code-level risk factors for tuberculosis: neighborhood environment and residential segregation in New Jersey, 1985–1992. Am J Public Health. 2001 May;91(5):734–741.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Sundquist K, Frank G, Sundquist J. Urbanisation and incidence of psychosis and depression: follow-up study of 4.4 million women and men in Sweden. Br J Psychiatry. 2004 April;184:293–298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Aral SO. Understanding racial-ethnic and societal differentials in STI. Sex Transm Infect. 2002 February;78(1):2–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Krieger N. Epidemiology and the web of causation: has anyone seen the spider? Soc Sci Med. 1994 October;39(7):887–903.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Bronfenbrenner U. The Ecology of Human Development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Cohen D, Spear S, Scribner R, Kissinger P, Mason K, Wildgen J. “Broken windows” and the risk of gonorrhea. Am J Public Health. 2000 February;90(2):230–236.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Wilson JQ, Kelling GL. Broken Windows. The Atlantic Monthly 249[3], 29–38. 1982. Ref Type: Magazine Article.

  85. Browning CR, Cagney KA. Neighborhood structural disadvantage, collective efficacy, and self-rated physical health in an urban setting. J Health Soc Behav. 2002 December;43(4):383–399.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Browning CR, Olinger-Wilbon M. Neighborhood structure, social organization, and number of short-term sexual partnerships. J Marriage Family. 2003 August;65:730–745.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Browning CR, Leventhal T, Brooks-Gunn J. Neighborhood context and racial differences in early adolescent sexual activity. Demography. 2004 November;41(4):697–720.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Kelly JA, Murphy DA, Sikkema KJ, et al. Randomised, controlled, community-level HIV-prevention intervention for sexual-risk behaviour among homosexual men in US cities. Community HIV Prevention Research Collaborative. Lancet. 1997 November 22;350(9090):1500–1505.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Fullilove MT, Heon V, Jimenez W, Parsons C, Green LL, Fullilove RE. Injury and anomie: effects of violence on an inner-city community. Am J Public Health. 1998 June;88(6):924–927.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Kiecolt-Glaser JK, McGuire L, Robles TF, Glaser R. Psychoneuroimmunology: psychological influences on immune function and health. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2002 June;70(3):537–547.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Bandura A. Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall; 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  92. DeLongis A, Lazarus RS, Folkman S. The impact of daily stress on health and mood: psychological and social resources as mediators. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1988;54(3):486–495.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Dohrenwend BP. A psychosocial perspective on the past and future of psychiatric epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol. 1998 February 1;147(3):222–231.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Lazarus RS, Folkman S. Stress, Appraisal, Coping. New York; 1984.

  95. Blumer H. Social disorganization and individual disorganization. Am J Sociol. 1937;42:871–877.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Fitzpatrick KM, LaGory M. “Placing” health in an urban sociology: cities as mosaics of risk and protection. City Community. 2003 March;2(1):33–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Marlatt GA. Alcohol, the magic elixir: Stress, expectancy, and the transformation of emotional states. In: Gotheil E, Druley KA, Pashko S, Weinstein SP, eds. Stress and Addiction. New York: Brunner Mazel; 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Lindenberg CS, Reiskin HK, Gendrop SC. The social stress model of substance abuse among childbearing-age women: a review of the literature. J Drug Educ. 1994;24(3):253–268.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Powers RJ. Stress as a factor in alcohol use and abuse. In: Gottheil E, Druley KA, Pashko S, Weinstein SP, eds. Stress and Addiction. New York: Brunner/Mazel; 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Latkin CA, Curry AD. Stressful neighborhoods and depression: a prospective study of the impact of neighborhood disorder. J Health Soc Behav. 2003 March;44(1):34–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Patrick DM, Strathdee SA, Archibald CP, et al. Determinants of HIV seroconversion in injection drug users during a period of rising prevalence in Vancouver. Int J STD AIDS. 1997 July;8(7):437–445.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Cohen DA, Mason K, Bedimo A, Scribner R, Basolo V, Farley TA. Neighborhood physical conditions and health. Am J Public Health. 2003 March;93(3):467–471.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Sampson RJ. The neighborhood context of well-being. Perspect Biol Med. 2003;46(3 Suppl):S53–S64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Hirschi T. Causes of Delinquency. Berkley: University of California; 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Shaw CR, McKay HD. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas. University of Chicago; 1969.

  106. Sampson RJ, Groves BW. Community structure and crime: testing social disorganization theory. Am J Soc. 1989;94:774–802.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  107. Brewster KL, Billy JOG, Grady WR. Social context and adolescent behavior: The impact of community on the transition to sexual activity. Soc Forces. 1993;71:713–740.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Stack S. Relocation: the effect of geographic mobility on premarital sex. J Marriage Family. 1994;56:204–208.

    Google Scholar 

  109. South SJ, Lloyd K. ‘Spousal alternatives and marital dissolution.’ Am Soc Rev. 1995;60:21–35.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Billy JOG, Brewster KL, Grady WR. Contextual effects on the sexual behavior of adolescent women. J Marriage Family. 1994;56:387–404.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Upchurch DM, Aneshensel CS, Sucoff CA, Levy-Storms L. Neighborhood and family contexts of adolescent sexual activity. J Marriage Family. 1999;61:920–933.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Brewster KL. Neighborhood context and the transition to sexual activity among young black women. Demography. 1994 November;31(4):603–614.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Ramirez-Valles J, Zimmerman MA, Newcomb MD. Sexual risk behavior among youth: modeling the influence of prosocial activities and socioeconomic factors. J Health Soc Behav. 1998 September;39(3):237–253.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. South SJ, Baumer EP. Deciphering community and race effects on adolescent premarital childbearing. Soc Forces. 2000 June;78:1379–1407.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Sucoff CA, Upchurch DM. Neighborhood context and the risk of childbearing among metropolitan-area Black adolescents. Am Soc Rev. 1998;63(4):571–585.

    Google Scholar 

  116. South SJ, Crowder KD. The declining significance of neighborhoods? Marital transitions in community context. Soc Forces. 2000;78(3):1067–1099.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Wallace R. Social disintegration and the spread of AIDS-II. Meltdown of sociogeographic structure in urban minority neighborhoods. Soc Sci Med. 1993 October; 37(7):887–896.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Peterman TA, Lindsey CA, Selik RM. This place is killing me: a comparison of counties where the incidence rates of AIDS increased the most and the least. J Infect Dis. 2005 February 1;191(Suppl 1):S123–S126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Crosby R, Holtgrave D, DiClemente RJ, Wingood G, Gayle J. Social capital as a predictor of adolescents' sexual risk behavior: A state-level exploratory study. AIDS and Behavior. 7(3):245–252. 2003. Ref Type: Generic.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Festinger L. A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations. 1954;7:117–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Valente TW. Social network thresholds in the diffusion of innovations. Soc Networks. 1996;18:69–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  122. Kinsman SB, Romer D, Furstenberg FF, Schwarz DF. Early sexual initiation: the role of peer norms. Pediatrics. 1998 November;102(5):1185–1192.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Fishbein M, Middlestadt SE, Trafimow D. Social norms for condom use: implications for HIV prevention interventions of a KABP survey with heterosexuals in the Eastern Caribbean. Adv Consum Res. 1993;20:292–296.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Albarracin D, Kumkale GT, Johnson BT. Influences of social power and normative support on condom use decisions: a research synthesis. AIDS Care. 2004 August;16(6):700–723.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Kinsman SB, Romer D, Furstenberg FF, Schwarz DF. Early sexual initiation: the role of peer norms. Pediatrics. 1998 November;102(5):1185–1192.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. O'Donnell L, Myint U, O'Donnell CR, Stueve A. Long-term influence of sexual norms and attitudes on timing of sexual initiation among urban minority youth. J Sch Health. 2003 February;73(2):68–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Latkin CA, Forman V, Knowlton A, Sherman S. Norms, social networks, and HIV-related risk behaviors among urban disadvantaged drug users. Soc Sci Med. 2003 February;56(3):465–476.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. O'Donnell L, Myint U, O'Donnell CR, Stueve A. Long-term influence of sexual norms and attitudes on timing of sexual initiation among urban minority youth. J Sch Health. 2003 February;73(2):68–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Shoveller JA, Johnson JL, Langille DB, Mitchell T. Socio-cultural influences on young people's sexual development. Soc Sci Med. 2004 August;59(3):473–487.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Adimora AA, Schoenbach VJ. Social context, sexual networks, and racial disparities in rates of sexually transmitted infections. J Infect Dis. 2005 February 1;191(Suppl 1):S115–S122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Bell DC, Montoya ID, Atkinson JS, Yang SJ. Social networks and forecasting the spread of HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002 October 1;31(2):218–229.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Friedman SR, Aral S. Social networks, risk-potential networks, health, and disease. J Urban Health. 2001 September;78(3):411–418.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Klovdahl AS. Networks and pathogens. Sex Transm Dis. 2001 January;28(1):25–28.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Klovdahl AS. Social networks and the spread of infectious diseases: the AIDS example. Soc Sci Med. 1985;21(11):1203–1216.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Klovdahl AS, Potterat JJ, Woodhouse DE, Muth JB, Muth SQ, Darrow WW. Social networks and infectious disease: the Colorado Springs Study. Soc Sci Med. 1994 January;38(1):79–88.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Moody J. The importance of relationship timing for diffusion. [References]. 2002. Ref Type: Generic.

  137. Morris M, Zavisca J, Dean L. Social and sexual networks: their role in the spread of HIV/AIDS among young gay men. AIDS Educ Prev. 1995;7(5 Suppl):24–35.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Rothenberg RB, Sterk C, Toomey KE, et al. Using social network and ethnographic tools to evaluate syphilis transmission. Sex Transm Dis. 1998 March;25(3):154–160.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Rothenberg RB, Potterat JJ, Woodhouse DE, Muth SQ, Darrow WW, Klovdahl AS. Social network dynamics and HIV transmission. AIDS. 1998 August 20;12(12):1529–1536.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Rothenberg RB, Long DM, Sterk CE, et al. The Atlanta Urban Networks Study: a blueprint for endemic transmission. AIDS. 2000 September 29;14(14):2191–2200.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Rothenberg RB, Potterat JJ, Woodhouse DE, Muth SQ, Darrow WW, Klovdahl AS. Social network dynamics and HIV transmission. AIDS. 1998 August;12(12):1529–1536.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Youm Y, Laumann EO. Social network effects on the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases. Sex Transm Dis. 2002 November;29(11):689–697.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Baxter LA, Widenmann S. Revealing and not revealing the status of romantic relationships to social networks. 1993. Ref Type: Generic.

  144. Ennett ST, Bailey SL, Federman EB. Social network characteristics associated with risky behaviors among runaway and homeless youth. J Health Soc Behav. 1999 March;40(1):63–78.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Mason M, Cheung I, Walker L. Substance use, social networks, and the geography of urban adolescents. Subst Use Misuse. 2004;39(10–12):1751–1777.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Milardo RM, Lewis RA. Social networks, families and mate selection: a transactional analysis. In: L'Abate L, ed. The Handboodk of Family Psychology and Therapy. Chicago: Dorsey; 1985:258–283.

    Google Scholar 

  147. Romer D, Black M, Ricardo I, et al. Social influences on the sexual behavior of youth at risk for HIV exposure. Am J Public Health. 1994 June;84(6):977–985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Treboux D, Busch-Rossnagel NA. Social network influences on adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviors. 1990. Ref Type: Generic.

  149. Ennett ST, Bailey SL, Federman EB. Social network characteristics associated with risky behaviors among runaway and homeless youth. J Health Soc Behav. 1999 March;40(1):63–78.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Friedman SR, Aral S. Social networks, risk-potential networks, health, and disease. J Urban Health. 2001 September;78(3):411–418.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Friedman SR, Bolyard M, Maslow C, Mateu-Gelabert P, Sandoval M. Harnessing the power of social networks to reduce HIV risk. Focus. 2005 January;20(1):5–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Latkin C, Mandell W, Oziemkowska M, Vlahov D, Celentano D. The relationships between sexual behavior, alcohol use, and personal network characteristics among injecting drug users in Baltimore, Maryland. Sex Transm Dis. 1994 May;21(3):161–167.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Latkin CA, Forman V, Knowlton A, Sherman S. Norms, social networks, and HIV-related risk behaviors among urban disadvantaged drug users. Soc Sci Med. 2003 February;56(3):465–476.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Miller M, Paone D. Social network characteristics as mediators in the relationship between sexual abuse and HIV risk. Soc Sci Med. 1998 September;47(6):765–777.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Miller M, Neaigus A. Networks, resources and risk among women who use drugs. Soc Sci Med. 2001 March;52(6):967–978.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Montgomery SB, Hyde J, De Rosa CJ, et al. Gender differences in HIV risk behaviors among young injectors and their social network members. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2002;28(3):453–475.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Romer D, Black M, Ricardo I, et al. Social influences on the sexual behavior of youth at risk for HIV exposure. Am J Public Health. 1994 June;84(6):977–985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Schensul JJ, Levy JA, Disch WB. Individual, contextual, and social network factors affecting exposure to HIV/AIDS risk among older residents living in low-income senior housing complexes. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003 June 1;33(Suppl 2):S138–S152.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Ross MW, Henry D, Freeman A, Caughy M, Dawson AG Jr. Environmental influences on safer sex in young gay men: a situational presentation approach to measuring influences on sexual health. Arch Sex Behav. 2004 June;33(3):249–257.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Amirkhanian YA, Kelly JA, McAuliffe TL. Identifying, recruiting, and assessing social networks at high risk for HIV/AIDS: methodology, practice, and a case study in St Petersburg, Russia. AIDS Care. 2005 January;17(1):58–75.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Amirkhanian YA, Kelly JA, Kabakchieva E, McAuliffe TL, Vassileva S. Evaluation of a social network HIV prevention intervention program for young men who have sex with men in Russia and Bulgaria. AIDS Educ Prev. 2003 June;15(3):205–220.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Miller M, Neaigus A. Social networks, HIV transmission, and prevention. Focus. 2005 January;20(1):1–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Smith AM, Grierson J, Wain D, Pitts M, Pattison P. Associations between the sexual behaviour of men who have sex with men and the structure and composition of their social networks. Sex Transm Infect. 2004 December;80(6):455–458.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Laumann E, Gagnon JH, Michael RT, Michaels S. The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  165. Berube A. Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in Wold War Two. New York: Free; 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  166. Faderman L. Odd Girls and Twighlight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth Century America. New York: Columbia University Press; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  167. Chauncey G. Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World, 1890–1940. New York: Basic Books; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  168. Binson D, Woods WJ, Pollack L, Paul J, Stall R, Catania JA. Differential HIV risk in bathhouses and public cruising areas. Am J Public Health. 2001 September;91(9):1482–1486.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Koblin B, Murrill C. HIV infection, amphetamine use and gay men in NYC: Analysis of the NYC National HIV Behavioral Surveillance Survey [NYC-NHBS). Columbia University HIV Center Grand Rounds. 2005. Ref Type: Abstract.

  170. Stall R, Purcell D. Intertwining epidemics: a review of research on substance use among men who have sex with men and its connection to the AIDS epidemic. AIDS Behav. 2000;4:181–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  171. Koblin BA, Chesney MA, Husnik MJ, et al. High-risk behaviors among men who have sex with men in 6 US cities: baseline data from the EXPLORE Study. Am J Public Health. 2003 June;93(6):926–932.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Chng CL, Geliga-Vargas J. Ethnic identity, gay identity, sexual sensation seeking and HIV risk taking among multiethnic men who have sex with men. AIDS Educ Prev. 2000 August;12(4):326–339.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Kippax S, Crawford J, Davis M, Rodden P, Dowsett G. Sustaining safe sex: a longitudinal study of a sample of homosexual men. AIDS. 1993 February;7(2):257–263.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. O'Donnell L, Agronick G, San DA, Duran R, Myint U, Stueve A. Ethnic and gay community attachments and sexual risk behaviors among urban Latino young men who have sex with men. AIDS Educ Prev. 2002 December;14(6):457–471.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Lemelle AJ, Battle J. Black masculinity matters in attitudes toward gay men. J Homosex. 2004;47(1):39–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Lewis GB. Black–White differences in attitudes toward homosexuality and gay rights. Public Opinion Q. 2003;67(1):59–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  177. Lichtenstein B. Secret encounters: black men, bisexuality, and AIDS in Alabama. Med Anthropol Q. 2000 September;14(3):374–393.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Schulte LJ, Battle J. The relative importance of ethnicity and religion in predicting attitudes towards gays and lesbians. J Homosex. 2004;47(2):127–142.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Waldner LK, Sikka A, Baig S. Ethnic and sex differences in university students' knowledge of AIDS, fear of AIDS, and homophobia. J Homosex. 1999;37(3):117–133.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Social Identity Theory: Constructive and Critical Advances. Berlin Heidelberg New York: Springer; 1990.

  181. Tajfel H, Turner JC. An integrated theory of intergroup conflict. In: Austin WG, Worchel S, eds. The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Monterey: Brooks/Cole; 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  182. Tarrant M, North AC, Edridge MD, Kirk LE, Smith EA, Turner RE. Social identity in adolescence. J Adolesc. 2001 October;24(5):597–609.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Johnston KL, White KM. Binge-drinking: a test of the role of group norms in the theory of planned behaviour. Pscyhol Health. 2003;18:63–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  184. Kobus K. Peers and adolescent smoking. Addiction. 2003 May;98(Suppl 1):37–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Sussman S, Dent CW, Wang E, Cruz NT, Sanford D, Johnson CA. Participants and nonparticipants of a mass media self-help smoking cessation program. Addict Behav. 1994 November;19(6):643–654.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Diaz RM. Latino Gay Men and HIV: Culture Sexuality and Risk Behavior. New York: Routledge; 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  187. Jones EE, Farina A, Hestrof AH, Markus H, Miller DT, Scott RA. Social Stigma: The Psychology of Marked Relationships. New York: Freeman; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  188. Thoits PA. Self-labeling process in mental illness: the role of emotional deviance. Am J Soc. 1985;91:221–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  189. Halkitis PN, Parson JT, Wilton L. Barebacking among gay and bisexual men of New York City: explanations for the emergence of intentional unsafe behavior. Arch Sex Behav. 2003;32(4):351–357.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Halkitis PN, Parsons JT. Intentional safe sex (barebacking) among HIV-positive gay men who seek sexual partners on the internet. AIDS Care. 2003 June;15(3):367–368.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Yep GA, Lovas KE, Pagonis AV. The case of “riding bareback”: sexual practices and the pradoxes of indentity in the era of AIDS. J Homosex. 2002;42(4):1–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Hennen P. Bear bodies, bear masculinity: recuperation, resistance, or retreat? Gender Soc. 2005;19(1):25–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  193. Burke PJ. Identity processes and social stress. Am Sociol Rev. 1991;56:836–849.

    Google Scholar 

  194. Finkelstein R, Netherland J. Sexual minority groups and urban health. In: Galea S, Vlahov D, eds. Handbook of Urban Health: Populations, Methods and Practice. Berlin Heidelberg New York: Springer; 2005:79–101.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank John Chin, Kent Curtis and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on this and earlier versions of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Urban Epidemiologic Studies, New York Academy of Medicine, 1216 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY, 10029, USA

    Victoria Frye DrPh

Authors
  1. Victoria Frye DrPh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mary H. Latka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Beryl Koblin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Perry N. Halkitis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Sara Putnam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Sandro Galea
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. David Vlahov
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Victoria Frye DrPh.

Additional information

Frye, Latka, Putnam, Galea, and Vlahov are with the Center for Urban Epidemiologic Studies, New York Academy of Medicine, 1216 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10029, USA; Koblin is with the New York Blood Center, New York, NY, USA; Halkitis is with the Department of Applied Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA; Vlahov is with the Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Galea is with the Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Frye, V., Latka, M.H., Koblin, B. et al. The Urban Environment and Sexual Risk Behavior among Men who have Sex with Men. JURH 83, 308–324 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-006-9033-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-006-9033-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation