Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Resilience Moderates the Relationship Between Exposure to Violence and Posttraumatic Reexperiencing in Mi’kmaq Youth

  • Published:
International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study is part of a school-based collaborative research project with a Nova Scotian Mi’kmaq community that hopes to shed light on the relationship between exposure to violence and mental health in First Nations youth. This particular study sought to examine how the multifaceted construct of resilience might act as a protective factor, buffering some students from the negative mental health consequences of exposure to violence. The present paper focuses on whether the construct of resilience, measured by the Child and Youth Resiliency Measure (CYRM; Ungar et al. 2008), has a moderating impact on the relationship between exposure to violence (emotional, physical, and sexual), measured by the Childhood Experience of Violence Questionnaire (CEVQ; Walsh, MacMillan, Trocmé, Jamieson, & Boyle, in press), and posttraumatic stress symptoms, measured by the Child PTSD Symptom Scale (CPSS, Foa et al. 2001). Results showed that the positive relationship between exposure to violence—measured as emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, and witnessing domestic violence—and the reexperiencing symptom cluster of PTSD was moderated by resilience, such that exposure to violence was only predictive of reexperiencing at lower levels of resilience. These findings not only help provide further cross-cultural validation for the CYRM as a measure, but provide support for an ecological conceptualization of resilience.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. As previously mentioned, psychological reactivity to trauma related triggers was dropped from our measurement of this symptom cluster.

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agaibi, C. E., & Wilson, J. P. (2005). Trauma, PTSD, and resilience: a review of the literature. Trauma Violence Abuse, 6, 195–216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.) Text Revision. Washington: Author.

  • Arellano, C. M. (1996). Child maltreatment and substance use: a review of the literature. Substance Use and Misuse, 31, 927–935.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barker-Collo, S. L. (1999). Reported symptomatology of Native Canadian and Caucasian females sexually abused in childhood: a comparison. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 747–760.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blackstock, C., Trocmé, N., & Bennett, M. (2004). Child maltreatment investigations among Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal families in Canada. Violence Against Women, 10, 901–916.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 748–766.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Browne, A., & Finkelhor, D. (1986). Impact of child sexual abuse: a review of the research. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 66–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Children and Family Services Act. (1990). Retrieved 2006. http://www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/legc/statutes/childfam.htm.

  • Coffey, S. F., Stasiewicz, P. R., Hughes, P. M., & Brimo, M. L. (2006). Trauma-focused imaginal exposure for individuals with comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and alcohol dependence: Revealing mechanisms of alcohol craving in a cue reactivity paradigm. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20, 425–435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale: Earlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Comeau, M. N., Stewart, S. H., & Collins, P. (2004). A qualitative study of self-perceived reasons for drinking in a sample of high personality risk First Nation adolescents: Implications for early intervention. Mega-NET conference: CIHR “Violence, Gender, and Health Workshop”, York University, Toronto.

  • Duran, B., Malcoe, L. H., Sanders, M., Waitzkin, H., Skipper, B., & Yager, J. (2004). Child maltreatment prevalence and mental disorders outcomes among American Indian women in primary care. Child Abuse and Neglect, 28, 131–145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fang, X., & Corso, P. S. (2008). Child maltreatment, youth violence, and intimate partner violence developmental relations. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 33, 281–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Johnson, K. M., Feeny, N. C., & Treadwell, K. R. H. (2001). The child PTSD symptom scale: a preliminary examination of its psychometric properties. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 376–384.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gottfredsen, D. C. (1986). An empirical test of school-based environmental and individual interventions to reduce the risk of delinquent behavior. Criminology, 24, 705–731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamby, S. L., & Finkelhor, D. (2000). The victimization of children: recommendations for assessment and instrument development. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 829–840.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hardt, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: review of the evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 260–273.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Health Canada. (2003). A statistical profile on the health of First Nations in Canada. Ottawa: Health Canada, First Nations and Inuit Health Branch.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, N., & Millstein, M. (1992). Resiliency in schools. Thousand Oaks: Corwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, R., & Allen, S. (1987). An empirical comparison of alternative methods for principal component extraction. Journal of Business Research, 15, 173–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaffee, S. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Polo-Tomas, M., & Taylor, A. (2007). Individual, family, and neighborhood factors distinguish resilient from non-resilient maltreated children: a cumulative stressors model. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31, 231–253.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser, H. F. (1960). The application of electronic computers to factor analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 141–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, H. B. (1999). Toward an understanding of resilience: A critical review of definitions and models. In M. D. Glantz & J. L. Johnson (Eds.), Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations (pp. 17–84). New York: Kluwer/Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplow, J. B., & Widom, C. S. (2007). Age of onset of child maltreatment predicts long-term mental health outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 176–187.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall-Tackett, K. A., Williams, L. M., & Finkelhor, D. (1993). The effects of sexual abuse on children: a review and synthesis of recent empirical findings. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 164–181.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, D. W., Leskin, G. A., King, L. A., & Weathers, F. W. (1998). Confirmatory factor analysis of the clinician-administered PTSD scale: evidence for the dimensionality of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Assessment, 10, 90–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirmayer, L. J. (1994). Suicide among Canadian Aboriginal peoples. Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review, 31, 3–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lehmann, P. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and child witnesses to mother-assault: a summary and review. Children and Youth Services Review, 22, 275–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lerner, R. M., & Benson, P. L. (2003). Developmental assets and asset-building communities: Implications for research, policy, and practice. New York: Kluwer Academic Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Longman, R. S., Cota, A. A., Holden, R. R., & Fekken, G. C. (1989). A regression equation for the parallel analysis criterion in principal components analysis: Mean and 95th percentile eigenvalues. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 24, 59–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S. (ed). (2003). Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: a critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacMillan, H. L., Walsh, C. A., Faries, E. J., MacMillan, A., McCue, H., & Wong, M. Y. -Y., et al. (1998). Ontario first nations regional health survey final report June.

  • Masten, A. S., & Powell, J. L. (2003). A resilience framework for research, policy, and practice. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 1–25). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Michael, T., Ehlers, A., Halligan, S. L., & Clark, D. M. (2005). Unwanted memories of assault: what intrusion characteristics are associated with PTSD? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 613–628.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Read, J. P., Brown, P. J., & Kahler, C. W. (2004). Substance use and posttraumatic stress disorders: symptom interplay and effects on outcome. Addictive Behaviors, 29, 1665–1672.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palyo, S. A., Clapp, J. D., Beck, G. J., Grant, D. M., & Marques, L. (2008). Unpacking the relationship between posttraumatic numbing and hyperarousal in a sample of help-seeking motor vehicle accident survivors: Replication and extension. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 235–238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Canada. (1993). Language, tradition, health, lifestyle and social issues: 1991 Aboriginal peoples survey. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada. Statistics Canada Catalogue No. 89-533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, S. H., Pihl, R. O., Conrod, P. J., & Dongier, M. (1998). Functional associations among trauma, PTSD and substance-related disorders. Addictive Behaviors, 23, 797–812.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B., & Fidell, L. (2001). Using Multivariate Statistics (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P., Ireland, T. O., & Smith, C. A. (2001). The importance of timing: the varying impact of childhood and adolescent maltreatment on multiple problem outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 957–979.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ungar, M. (2001). The social construction of resilience among “problem” youth in out-of-home placement: a study of health-enhancing deviance. Child and Youth Care Forum, 50, 137–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ungar, M. (2005). Pathways to resilience among children in Child Welfare, Corrections, Mental Health and Educational settings: navigation and negotiation. Child and Youth Care Forum, 34, 423–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ungar, M. (2008). Resilience across cultures. British Journal of Social Work, 38, 218–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ungar, M., & Liebenberg, L. (2005). The International Resilience Project: A mixed methods approach to the study of resilience across cultures. In M. Ungar (Ed.), Handbook for working with children and youth: Pathways to resilience across cultures and contexts (pp. 211–226). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ungar, M., Liebenberg, L., Boothroyd, R., Kwong, W. M., Lee, T. Y., Leblanc, J., et al. (2008). The study of youth resilience across cultures: lessons from a pilot study of measurement development. Research in Human Development, 5, 166–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veltman, M. W. M., & Browne, K. D. (2001). Three decades of child maltreatment research: implications for the school years. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 2, 215–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, C. A., MacMillan, H. L., Trocmé, N., Jamieson, E., & Boyle, M. H. (2008). Measurement of victimization in adolescence: development and validation of the childhood experiences of violence questionnaire. Child Abuse and Neglect, 32, 1037–1057.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weierich, M. R., & Nock, M. K. (2008). Posttraumatic stress symptoms mediate the relation between childhood sexual abuse and nonsuicidal self-injury. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 39–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. (1992). Overcoming the odds. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Widom, C. S., Marmorstein, N. R., & White, N. H. (2006). Childhood victimization and illicit drug use in middle adulthood. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20, 394–403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zahradnik, M., Stevens, D., Stewart, H. S., Comeau, M. N., Mushquash, C. J., & Wekerle, C. (2007). Building a collaborative understanding of pathways to adolescent alcohol misuse in a Mi’kmaq community: A process paper. First Peoples Child and Family Review, 3, 27–36.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada

    Marc Zahradnik

  2. Psychiatry and Psychology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada

    Sherry H. Stewart

  3. Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada

    Roisin M. O’Connor

  4. Mount Saint Vincent University, Halifax, NS, Canada

    Doreen Stevens

  5. School of Social Work, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada

    Michael Ungar

  6. Faculty of Education, Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, Halifax, NS, Canada

    Christine Wekerle

Authors
  1. Marc Zahradnik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sherry H. Stewart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Roisin M. O’Connor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Doreen Stevens
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Michael Ungar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Christine Wekerle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marc Zahradnik.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zahradnik, M., Stewart, S.H., O’Connor, R.M. et al. Resilience Moderates the Relationship Between Exposure to Violence and Posttraumatic Reexperiencing in Mi’kmaq Youth. Int J Ment Health Addiction 8, 408–420 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-009-9228-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-009-9228-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation