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In Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage as an International Legal Principle

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Abstract

In situ preservation is not necessarily the best underwater archaeological solution, nor is it legally required in all circumstances. Rather, it is the first and, perhaps, the most technically desirable option, when archaeological, legal, and political circumstances—in that order—so advise. Otherwise, the removal of the historical object or objects found under the sea and their conservation outside the marine environment is another plausible option, provided the archaeological standards accepted by the international scientific community are met. This paper aims to clarify the legal contours of this rule, as codified by the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. To this end, it proposes the following basic hypothesis: in situ preservation, as a current legal principle in underwater archaeological activities, is the first option for the protection of that heritage; because it is an option, this preservation may take a different form depending on the circumstances; nothing legally prevents the removal of remains from the seabed, provided it is done properly and they are appropriately preserved; and, finally, if necessary, this should be done as soon as possible, given the circumstances.

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Notes

  1. Convention on the Protection of the underwater Cultural Heritage, adopted November 2, 2001, entered into force January 2, 2009. 2562 UNTS 1. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001260/126065e.pdf.

  2. At the risk of oversimplifying, it should be recalled that these adverse circumstances—whether naturally occurring or caused by human activity—can be physical/mechanical (climate change, landslides, changes in ocean currents, licit and illicit extractive activities, etc.), chemical/organic (action of living organisms, such as fungi or bacteria, changes due to chemical reactions with inorganic elements such as lime or salt, corrosion of metals due to aerobic changes, etc.), or, in many cases, a dangerous combination of both. They can moreover result in temporary or permanent alterations.

  3. Recommendation on International Principles Applicable to Archaeological Excavations, December 5, 1956. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001145/114585e.pdf#page=40 knowledge.

  4. Recommendation concerning the Preservation of Cultural Property endangered by Public or Private Works, November 19, 1968. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001140/114047e.pdf#page=134.

  5. Recommendation No R (93) 9 on the protection of the architectural heritage against natural disasters, November 23, 1993. https://rm.coe.int/16804ce2ba.

  6. Charter for the Protection and Management of the Archaeological Heritage, prepared by the International Committee for the Management of Archaeological Heritage (ICAHM) and approved by the 9th ICOMOS General Assembly in Lausanne in 1990. http://www.icomos.org/images/DOCUMENTS/Charters/arch_e.pdf.

  7. Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage, ratified by the 11th ICOMOS General Assembly in Sofia, Bulgaria, October 1996. http://www.icomos.org/images/DOCUMENTS/Charters/underwater_e.pdf.

  8. Río Declaration on Environment and Development (UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (Vol.1), August 12, 1992. http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm.

  9. UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted November 16, 1972, entered into force December 17, 1975. 1037 UNTS 151. https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%201037/volume-1037-I-15511-English.pdf.

  10. UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, adopted November 14, 1970, entered into force April 24, 1972, 823 UNTS 231. https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20823/volume-823-I-11806-English.pdf.

  11. UNDROIT Convention on stolen or illegally exported cultural objects, adopted June 24, 1995, entered into force July 1, 1998, 2421 UNTS 457. https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%202421/v2421.pdf.

  12. European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage (Revised), adopted January 16, 1992, entered into force on July 25, 1995, CETS No. 143, https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/143.

  13. Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean, adopted June 10, 1995, entered into force July 9, 2004. This Convention replaces the previous Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean against Pollution (adopted February 16, 1976, entered into force February 12, 1978). https://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/upload/files/Barcelona_convention_and_protocols_2005_eng.pdf.

  14. Protocol on Integrated Coastal Zone Management Adopted January 21, 2008, entered into force March 24, 2011, EU OJ L 34. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A22009A0204(01).

  15. Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, adopted May 14, 1954, entered into force August 7, 1956, 249 UNTS 215. https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20249/volume-249-I-3511-English.pdf.

  16. Second Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, adopted May 14, 1954, entered into force March 9, 2004, 2253 UNTS 172. https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%202253/v2253.pdf.

  17. Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological, Historical, and Artistic Heritage of the American Nations, approved by the OAS General Assembly on June 16, 1976, through Resolution AG/RES. 210 (VI-O/76). http://www.oas.org/en/sla/dil/inter_american_treaties_C-16_Convention_Protection_Archeological_Heritage.asp.

  18. UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, adopted December 10, 1982, entered into force November 16, 1994) 1833 UNTS 397. http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf.

  19. Agreement between the Netherlands and Australia concerning old Dutch shipwrecks, November 6, 1972, text in Australian Treaty Series No. 18 (1972). http://www3.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/ATS/1972/18.html.

  20. Agreement Concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic, adopted November 6, 2003, not yet in force. http://www.gc.noaa.gov/documents/titanic-agreement.pdf.

  21. NOAA Guidelines for Research, Exploration and Salvage of RMS Titanic [66 Fed.Reg 18906 (April 12, 2001)]. http://www.gc.noaa.gov/documents/Titanic_Guidelines.pdf.

  22. Agreement signed by the U.S. and France regarding custody of the sunken French vessel La Belle, March 31, 2003, in force March 31, 2003. https://www.state.gov/s/l/2003/44363.htm.

  23. The excavation was decided given the peculiar circumstances of the wreck and, logically, with the agreement of the sovereign of the remains (i.e., France), as it was a non-abandoned sunken state vessel. See, in addition to the Agreement, the Administrative Arrangement, Texas Historical Commission—Musée National de la Marine, March 31, 2003 (author’s files).

  24. Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976. http://posh.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdb/au/legis/cth/consol_act/hsa1976235/.

  25. Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 (http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1973/33) and Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 (http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1986/35/contents).

  26. Protection of Cultural Relics Law (1982) (http://www.unesco.org/culture/natlaws/media/pdf/china/china_lawprotectionclt_entof) and the Regulations on Protection and Administration of Underwater Cultural Relics (1989) (http://www.unesco.org/culture/natlaws/media/pdf/china/china_regadmunderwaterclt_entof).

  27. Code du Patrimoine, Chap. 2, Title III, Book V (https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCode.do;jsessionid=2120002D9E1ABF9FE833129812717DD8.tpdila10v_2?idSectionTA=LEGISCTA000006159949&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006074236&dateTexte=20170303) and its reglamentary rule in Art. R532 (https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCode.do?idArticle=LEGIARTI000024241559&idSectionTA=LEGISCTA000024241556&cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006074236&dateTexte=20170303#LEGIARTI000024241559).

  28. Law 3028/2002, on the Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in general. http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/gr/gr228en.pdf.

  29. Decreto Legislativo 22 gennaio 2004, n. 42, “Codice dei beni culturali e del paesaggio, ai sensi dell’articolo 10 della legge 6 luglio 2002, n. 137” (Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 45 del 24 febbraio 2004—Supplemento Ordinario n. 28). http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta=2004-02-24&atto.codiceRedazionale=004G0066&elenco30giorni=false.

  30. Decreto-Lei nº 164/97, June 27, 1997 (Diário da República—I Série-A Nº 146—June 27, 1997). http://www.unesco.org/culture/natlaws/media/pdf/portugal/portugal_decree_law_16497_underwater_archaeological_activity_pororof.pdf.

  31. National Monuments Amendment Act 1979. https://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/Act%2035%20of%201979.pdf.

  32. National Marine Sanctuaries Act (16 U.S.C. s. 1431). https://nmssanctuaries.blob.core.windows.net/sanctuaries-prod/media/archive/library/national/nmsa.pdf.

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Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Filipe Castro, Dolores Elkin, Thijs Maarleveld, Manuel Martín Bueno and Xavier Nieto for their most valuable comments on an earlier draft of this article. However, the views expressed herein are solely those of the author, as are any errors.

Funding

Funding was provided by Universitat Jaume I (R + D Project UJI-B2017-71 “Intereses de España y de la UE en el ámbito marítimo”.).

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  1. Public International Law, Universitat Jaume I, Av. Sos Baynat s/n, 12071, Castellón, Spain

    Mariano J. Aznar

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  1. Mariano J. Aznar
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Correspondence to Mariano J. Aznar.

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Aznar, M.J. In Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage as an International Legal Principle. J Mari Arch 13, 67–81 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-018-9192-4

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