Abstract
We present a comparative study of the most advanced three-dimensional time-dependent numerical simulation models of solar wind. These models can be classified into two categories: (I) theoretical, empirical and numerically based models and (II) self-consistent multi-dimensional numerical magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) models. The models of Category I are used to separately describe the solar wind solution in two plasma flows regions: transonic/trans-Alfvénic and supersonic/super-Alfvénic, respectively. Models of Category II construct a complete, single, numerical solar wind solution through subsonic/sub-Alfvénic region into supersonic/super-Alfvénic region. The Wang-Sheeley-Arge (WSA)/ENLIL in CISM is the most successful space weather model that belongs to Category I, and the Block-Adaptive-Tree-Solarwind-Roe-Upwind-Scheme (BATS-R-US) code in SWMF (Space Weather Modeling Framework) and the solar-interplanetary conservative element solution element MHD (SIP-CESE MHD) model in SWIM (Space Weather Integrated Model) are the most commonly-used models that belong to Category II. We review the structures of their frameworks, the main results for solar wind background studies that are essential for solar transient event studies, and discuss the common features and differences between these two categories of solar wind models. Finally, we conclude that the transition of these two categories of models to operational use depends on the availability of computational resources at reasonable cost and point out that the models’ prediction capabilities may be improved by employing finer computational grids, incorporating more observational data and by adding more physical constraints to the models.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arge C N, Pizzo V J. 2000. Improvement in the prediction of solar wind conditions using near-real time solar magnetic field updates. J Geophys Res-Atmos, 105: 10465–10480
Arge C N, Henney C J, Koller J, et al. 2010. Air Force Data Assimilative Photospheric Flux Transport (ADAPT) Model. The Twelfth International Solar Wind Conference. AIP Conf Proc, 1216: 343–346
Arge C N, Henney C J, Koller J, et al. 2011. Improving data drivers for coronal and solar wind models. Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series. 444: 99–104
Brackbill, J U, Barnes D C. 1980. The effect of nonzero ∇·B on the numerical solution of the magnetohydrodynamic equations. J Comput Phys, 35: 426–430
Chang S. 1995. The method of space-time conservation element and solution element—A new approach for solving the Navier-Stokes and Euler equations. J Comput Phys, 119: 295–324
Chang S C, Wang X Y, To W M. 2000. Application of the spacectime conservation element and solution element method to one-dimensional convection-diffusion problems. J Comput Phys, 165: 189–215
Cohen O, Sokolov I V, Roussev I I, et al. 2007. A semiempirical magnetohydrodynamical model of the solar wind. Astrophys J, 654: L163–L166
Cohen O, Sokolov I V, Roussev I I, et al. 2008. Validation of a synoptic solar wind model. J Geophys Res-Atmos, 113: A03104
de Toma G, Arge C N. 2010. The Sun’s magnetic field during the past two minima. The Twelfth International Solar Wind Conference. AIP Conf Proc, 1216: 679–681
Dedner A, Kemm F, Kröner D, et al. 2002. Hyperbolic divergence cleaning for the MHD equations. J Comput Phys, 175: 645–673
Detman T R, Intriligator D S, Dryer M, et al. 2011. The influence of pickup protons, from interstellar neutral hydrogen, on the propagation of interplanetary shocks from the Halloween 2003 solar events to ACE and Ulysses: A 3-D MHD modeling study. J Geophys Res, 116: A03105
Detman T, Smith Z, Dryer M, et al. 2006. A hybrid heliospheric modeling system: Background solar wind. J Geophys Res, 111: A07102
Evans C R, Hawley J F. 1988. Simulation of magnetohydrodynamic flows—A constrained transport method. Astrophys J, 332: 659–677
Fedder J A, Slinker S P, Lyon J G, et al. 1995a. Global numerical simulation of the growth phase and the expansion onset for a substorm observed by Viking. J Geophys Res, 100: 19083–19094
Fedder J A, Lyon J G, Slinker S P, et al. 1995b. Topological structure of the magnetotail as a function of interplanetary magnetic field direction. J Geophys Res, 100: 3613–3621
Feldman W C, Barraclough B L, Gosling J T, et al. 1998. Ion energy equation for the high-speed solar wind: Ulysses observations. J Geophys Res, 103: 14547–14558
Feng X S, Xiang C Q, Zhong D K, et al. 2005. A comparative study on 3-D solar wind structure observed by Ulysses and MHD simulation. Chin Sci Bull, 50: 672–676
Feng X S, Hu Y Q, Wei F S. 2006. Modeling the resistive MHD by the CESE method. Sol Phys, 235: 235–257
Feng X S, Zhou Y F, Wu S T. 2007. A novel numerical implementation for solar wind modeling by the modified conservation element/solution element method. Astrophys J, 655: 1110–1126
Feng X S, Zhang Y, Yang L P, et al. 2009. An operational method for shock arrival time prediction by one-dimensional CESE-HD solar wind model. J Geophys Res, 114: A10103
Feng X S, Yang L P, Xiang C Q, et al. 2010. Three-dimensional solar wind modeling from the Sun to Earth by a SIP-CESE MHD model with a six-component grid. Astrophys J, 723: 300–319
Feng X S, Zhang S H, Xiang C Q, et al. 2011. A hybrid solar wind model of the CESE+HLL method with a Yin-Yang overset grid and an AMR grid. Astrophys J, 734: 50, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/734/1/50
Feng X S, Yang L P, Xiang C Q, et al. 2012a. Validation of the 3D AMR SIP-CESE solar wind model for four Carrington rotations. Sol Phys, 279: 207–229
Feng X S, Jiang C W, Xiang C Q, et al. 2012b. A data-driven model for the global coronal evolution. Astrophys J, 758: 62
Feng X S, Xiang C Q, Zhong D K. 2013a. Numerical Study of Interplanetary solar storms (in Chinese). Sci Sin Terrae, 43: 912–933
Feng X S, Zhong D K, Xiang C Q, et al. 2013b. GPU computing in space weather modeling. Numerical Modeling of Space Plasma Flows: ASTRONUM-2012, ASP Conference Series, 474: 131–139
Feng X S, Zhong D K, Xiang C Q, et al. 2013c. GPU-accelerated computing of three-dimensional solar wind background. Sci China Earth Sci, 56: 1864–1880
Feng X S, Xiang C Q, Zhong D K, et al. 2014. SIP-CESE MHD model of solar wind with adaptive mesh refinement of hexahedral meshes. Comput Phys Commun, 185: 1965–1980
Fry C D, Sun W, Deehr C S, et al. 2001. Improvements to the HAF solar wind model for space weather predictions. J Geophys Res, 106: 20985–21001
Gibson S E, Kozyra J U, de Toma G, et al. 2009. If the Sun is so quiet, why is the Earth ringing? A comparison of two solar minimum intervals. J Geophys Res, 114: A09105
Gombosi T I, Powell K G, De Zeeuw, et al. 2004. Solution-adaptive magnetohydrodynamics for space plasmas: Sun-to-earth simulations. Comput Sci Engineer, 6: 14–35
Goodrich C C, Sussman A L, Lyon J G, et al. 2004. The CISM code coupling strategy. J Atmos Solar Terr Phys, 66: 1469–1479
Gressl C, Veronig A M, Temmer M, et al. 2014. Comparative study of MHD modeling of the background solar wind. Sol Phys, 289: 1783–1801
Han S M, Wu S T, Dryer M. 1988. A three-dimensional, time-dependent numerical modeling of super-sonic, super-Alfvénic MHD flow. Comput Fluids, 16: 81–103
Harvey K L, Recely F. 2002. Polar coronal holes during cycles 22 and 23. Solar Phys, 211: 31–52
Hayashi K. 2005. Magnetohydrodynamic simulations of the solar corona and solar wind using a boundary treatment to limit solar wind mass flux. Astrophys J Suppl Ser, 161: 480–494
Hayashi K, Zhao X P, Li, Y. 2008. MHD simulations of the global solar corona around the Halloween event in 2003 using the synchronic frame format of the solar photospheric magnetic field. J Geophys Res, 113: A07104
Hayashi K. 2012. An MHD simulation model of time-dependent co-rotating solar wind. J Geophys Res, 117: A08105
Harten A, Lax P, Leer B. 1983. On upstream differencing and Godunov-type schemes for hyperbolic conservation laws. SIAM Rev, 25: 35–61
Hu Y Q, Feng X S, Wu S T, et al. 2008. Three-dimensional MHD modeling of the global corona throughout solar cycle 23. J Geophys Res, 113: A03106
Intriligator D S, Detman T, Gloecker G, et al. 2012. Pickup protons: Comparisons using the three-dimensional MHD HHMS-PI model and Ulysses SWICS measurements. J Geophys Res, 117: A06104
Jacobs C, Poedts S. 2012. A numerical study of the response of the coronal magnetic field to flux emergence. Sol Phys, 280: 389–405
Jiang C W, Feng X S. 2013. Extrapolation of the solar coronal magnetic field from SDO/HMI magnetogram by a CESE-MHD-NLFFF code. Astrophys J, 769: 144
Jiang C W, Wu S T, Feng X S, et al. 2014. Formation and eruption of an active region sigmoid. I. A study by nonlinear force-free field modeling. Astrophys J, 780: 55
Jin M, Manchester W B, van der Holst B, et al. 2013. Numerical simulations of coronal mass ejection on 2011 march 7: One-temperature and two-temperature model comparison. Astrophys J, 773: 50
Kissmann R, Kleimann J, Fichtner H, et al. 2008. Local turbulence simulations for the multiphase ISM. Mon Not R Astron, 391: 1577–1588
Kleimann J, Kopp A, Fichtner H, et al. 2004. Three-dimensional MHD high-resolution computations with CWENO employing adaptive mesh refinement. Comput Phys Commun, 158: 47–56
Kleimann J, Kopp A, Fichtner H, et al. 2009. A novel code for numerical 3-D MHD studies of CME expansion. Annales Geophys, 27: 989–1004
Koren B. 1993. A robust upwind discretisation method for advection, diffusion and source terms. In: Vreugdenhil C B, Koren B, eds, Notes on Numerical Fluid Mechanics. Vieweg-Braunschweig: Springer. 117–138
Lapenta G, Pierrard V, Keppens R, et al. 2013. SWIFF: Space weather integrated forecasting framework. J Space Weather Space Clim. 3: A05
Lee J Y, Sussman A. 2005. High performance communication between parallel programs. Proc 19th IEEE Inter Paral Distr Proces Sympos, 5: 177
Linker J A. 2011. A next-generation model of the corona and solar wind. Technical Report AFRL-OSR-VA-TR-2012-0199, Air Force Force of Scientific Research, Arlington VA
Linker J A, Lionello R, Mikić Z, et al. 2001. Magnetohydrodynamic modeling of prominence formation within a helmet streamer. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 106: 25165–25176
Linker J A, Mikić Z, Biesecker D A, et al. 1999. Magnetohydrodynamic modeling of the solar corona during Whole Sun Month. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 104: 9809–9830
Lionello R, Linker J A, Mikić Z. 2001. Including the transition region in models of the large-scale solar corona. Astrophys J, 546: 542–551
Lionello R, Linker J A, Mikić Z. 2009. Multispectral emission of the Sun during the first Whole Sun Month: Magnetohydrodynamic simulations. Astrophys J, 690: 902–912
Lionello R, Mikić Z, Linker J A. 1999. Stability of algorithms for waves with large flows. J Comput Phys, 152: 346–358
Lionello R, Downs C, Linker J A, et al. 2013. Magnetohydrodynamic simulations of interplanetary coronal mass ejections. Astrophys J, 777: 76
Manchester W B IV, van der Holst B, Tóth G, et al. 2012. The Coupled Evolution of Electrons and Ions in Coronal Mass Ejection-driven shocks. Astrophys J, 756: 81
McGregor S L, Hughes W J, Arge C N, et al. 2011. The distribution of solar wind speeds during solar minimum: Calibration for numerical solar wind modeling constraints on the source of the slow solar wind. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 116: A03101
Merkin V G, Lyon J G, McGregor S L, et al. 2011. Disruption of a heliospheric current sheet fold. Geophys Res Lett, 38: L14107
Mikić Z, Linker J A, Schnack D D, et al. 1999. Magnetohydrodynamic modeling of the global solar corona. Phys Plasmas, 6: 2217–2224
Nakamizo A, Tanaka T, Kubo Y, et al. 2009. Development of the 3-D MHD model of the solar corona-solar wind combining system. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 114: A07109
Odstrčil D. 1994. Interactions of solar wind streams and related small structures. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 99: 17653–17671
Odstrčil D, Pizzo V J. 1999a. Distortion of the interplanetary magnetic field by three dimensional propagation of coronal mass ejections in a structured solar wind. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 104: 28225–28240
Odstrčil D, Pizzo V J. 1999b. Three-dimensional propagation of CMEs in a structured solar wind flow: 1. CME launched within the streamer belt. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 104: 483–492
Owens M J, Spence H E, McGregor S, et al. 2008. Metrics for solar wind prediction models: Comparison of empirical, hybrid, and physics-based schemes with 8 years of L1 observations. Space Weather, 6: S08001
Pahud D M, Merkin V G, Arge C N, et al. 2012. An MHD simulation of the inner heliosphere during Carrington rotations 2060 and 2068: Comparison with MESSENGER and ACE spacecraft observations. J Atmos Solar Terr Phys, 83: 32
Porth O, Xia C, Hendrix T, et al. 2014. MPI-AMRVAC for solar and astrophysics. Astrophys J Suppl Ser, 214: 4
Powell K G. 1994. A Riemann solver for ideal MHD that works in more than one dimension. Technical Report. ICASE Report 94-24
Powell K G, Roe P L, Linde T J, et al. 1999. A solution-adaptive upwind scheme for ideal magnetohydrodynamics. J Comput Phys, 154: 284–309
Riley P, Linker J A, Mikić Z, et al. 2003. Using an MHD simulation to interpret the global context of a coronal mass ejection observed by two spacecraft. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 108: 1272
Riley P, Linker J A, Lionello R, et al. 2012. Corotating interaction regions during the recent solar minimum: The power and limitations of global MHD modeling. J Atmos Solar Terr Phys, 83: 1–10
Riley P, Lionello R. 2011. Mapping solar wind streams from the Sun to 1 AU: A comparison of techniques. Sol Phys, 270: 575–592
Schatten K H, Wilcox J M, Ness N F. 1969. A model of interplanetary and coronal magnetic fields. Sol Phys, 6: 442–455
Schrijver C J, Sandman A W, Aschwanden M J, et al. 2004. The Coronal Heating Mechanism as Identified by Full-Sun Visualizations. Astrophys J, 615: 512–525
Schwadron N A, McComas D J, Elliott H A, et al. 2005. Solar wind from the coronal hole boundaries. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 110: A04104
Shen F, Feng X S, Wu S T, et al. 2011. Three-dimensional MHD simulation of the evolution of the April 2000 CME event and its induced shocks using a magnetized plasma blob model. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 116: A04102
Sokolov I V, Powell K G, Cohen O, et al. 2008. Computational magnetohydro dynamics, based on solution of the well-posed riemann problem. In: Pogorelov N V, Audit E, Zank G P, eds. Numerical Modeling of Space Plasma Flows: Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series. 385: 291–298
Sokolov I, Timofeev E V, Sakai J I, et al. 2002. Artificial wind—A new framework to construct simple and efficient upwind shock-capturing schemes. J Comput Phys, 181: 354–393
Stevens M L, Linker J A, Riley P, et al. 2012. Underestimates of magnetic flux in coupled MHD model solar wind solutions. J Atmos Solar Terr Phys, 83: 22–31
Stout Q F, De Zeeuw D L, Gombosi T I, et al. 1997. Adaptive blocks: A high performance data structure. Proc 1997 ACM/IEEE confer Supercomput. 1–10
Sun X D, Liu Y, Hoeksema J T, Hayashi K, et al. 2011. A new method for polar field interpolation. Sol Phys, 270: 9–22
Temmer M, Rollett T, Möstl C, et al. 2011. Influence of the ambient solar wind flow on the propagation behavior of interplanetary coronal mass ejections. Astrophys J, 743: 101
Tóth G. 1996. A general code for modeling MHD flows on parallel computers: Versatile advection code. Astrophys Lett Communi, 34: 245–250
Tóth G. 2006. Flexible, efficient and robust algorithm for parallel execution and coupling of components in a framework. Comput Phys Communi, 174: 793–802
Tóth G, Odstrčil D. 1996. Comparison of some flux corrected transport and total variation diminishing numerical schemes for hydrodynamic and magnetohydrodynamic problems. J Comput Phys, 128: 82–100
Tóth G, Roe P L. 2002. Divergence- and curl-preserving prolongation and restriction formulas. J Comput Phys, 180: 736–750
Tóth G, van der Holst B, Sokolov I V, et al. 2012. Adaptive numerical algorithms in space weather modeling. J Comput Phys, 231: 870–903
Totten T L, Freeman J W, Arya S. 1996. Application of the empirically derived polytropic index for the solar wind to models of solar wind propagation. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 101: 15629–15636
Usmanov A V, Dryer M. 1995. A global 3-D simulation of interplanetary dynamics in June 1991. Sol Phys, 159: 347–370
Usmanov A V, Goldstein M L. 2003. A tilted-dipole MHD model of the solar corona and solar wind. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 108: 1354
van der Holst B, Manchester W B IV, Frazin R A, et al. 2010. A data-driven, two-temperature solar wind model with Alfvén waves. Astrophys J, 725: 1373–1383
Van der Holst B, Sokolov I V, Meng X, et al. 2014. Alfvén wave solar model (AWSoM): Coronal heating. Astrophys J, 782: 81
Van Leer B. 1979. Towards the ultimate conservative difference scheme. V. a second-order sequel to Godunov’s method. J Comput Phys, 32: 101–136
Wang W, Killeen T L, Burns A G, et al. 1999. A high-resolution, three-dimensional, time dependent, nested grid model of the coupled thermosphere-ionosphere. J Atmos Solar Terr Phys, 61: 385–397
Wiengarten T, Kleimann J, Fichtner H, et al. 2013. MHD simulation of the inner-heliospheric magnetic field. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 118: 29–44
Wood B E, Wu C C, Rouillard A P, et al. 2012. A coronal hole’s effects on coronal mass ejection shock morphology in the inner heliosphere. Astrophys J, 755: 43
Worden J, Harvey J. 2000. An evolving synoptic magnetic flux map and implications for the distribution of photospheric magnetic flux. Sol Phys, 195: 247–268
Wu S T, Guo W P. 1999. Generation and propagation of solar disturbances: A magnetohydrodynamic simulation. J Atmos Solar Terr Phys, 61: 109–117
Wu C C, Fry C D, Berdichevsky D, et al. 2005. Predicting the arrival time of shock passages at Earth. Sol Phys, 227: 371–386
Wu C C, Fry C D, Wu S T, et al. 2007. Three-dimensional global simulation of interplanetary coronal mass ejection propagation from the Sun to the heliosphere: Solar event of 12 May 1997. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 112: A09104
Wu C C, Dryer M, Wu S T, et al. 2011. Global three-dimensional simulation of the interplanetary evolution of the observed geoeffective coronal mass ejection during the epoch 1–4 August 2010. J Geophys Res-Atmos, 116: A12103
Yang L P, Feng X S, Xiang C Q, et al. 2011. Simulation of the unusual solar minimum with 3D SIP-CESE MHD model by comparison with multi-satellite observations. Sol Phys, 271: 91–110
Yang L P, Feng X S, Xiang C Q, et al. 2012. Time-dependent MHD modeling of the global solar corona for year 2007: Driven by daily-updated magnetic field synoptic data. J Geophys Res, 117: A08110
Zhang Z C, John Yu S T, Chang S C. 2002. A space-time conservation element and solution element method for solving the two- and three-dimensional unsteady Euler equations using quadrilateral and hexahedral meshes. J Comput Phys, 175: 168–199
Zhao X, Dryer M. 2014. Current status of CME/shock arrival time prediction. Space Weather Quart, 12: 14–35, doi:10.1002/2014SW001060
Zhou Y F, Feng X S, Wu S T. 2008. Numerical simulation of the 12 May 1997 CME event. Chin Phys Lett, 25: 790–793
Zhou Y F, Feng X S, Wu S T, et al. 2012. Using a 3-D spherical plasmoid to interpret the Sun-to-Earth propagation of the 4 November 1997 coronal mass ejection event. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 117: A01102
Zhou Y F, Feng X S. 2013. MHD numerical study of the latitudinal deflection. of coronal mass ejection. J Geophys Res-Space Phys, 118: 6007–6018
Zuccarello F P, Bemporad A, Jacobs C M, et al. 2012. The role of streamers in the deflection of coronal mass ejections: Comparison between stereo three-dimensional reconstructions and numerical simulations. Astrophys J, 744: 66
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wu, S.T., Dryer, M. Comparative analyses of current three-dimensional numerical solar wind models. Sci. China Earth Sci. 58, 839–858 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-015-5062-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-015-5062-1