Abstract
Application of mineralogy, geochemistry, sedimentary petrology, and sedimentology methods result in better understanding of the genesis and paleoenvironmens of the Upper Cretaceous oceanic red beds exposed in southern Tibet. The red beds comprise the Chungde Formation. Nine lithofacies recognized within this formation are: red foraminiferal packstone/grainstone, red microfossils wackestone, red marlstone with microfossils, red marlstone, red to variegated floatstone and rudstone (debris flow), red shale, red radiolarite, red chert with radiolaria, and red chert. Sedimentary structures and textures, microfossils, and carbonate content show that the Chuangde Fm was deposited near the base of a continental slope in a deep oceanic basin environment, with the basin floor below the carbonate compensation depth (CCD). Red marlstones and limestones intercalated within red shales represent slides and slumps from the upper part of the continental margin. Debris flow and turbidity deposits consist of volcaniclastic, fossilliferous rudstone and floatstone, and very thin calcareous mudstone, intercalated with red shales.
The Upper Cretaceous oceanic red beds in southern Tibet are characterized by high Fe2O3, low FeO, which indicates an oxic diagenetic environment, resulting in precipitation of hematite. The latter occurs as finely, disseminated ferric oxide giving the red color to the rocks. It is concluded that the red beds in southern Tibet were deposited under highly oxygenated bottom conditions in the deep ocean basin. Such conditions not only occurred in a deep ocean basin as indicated by the occurrence of pelagic red shale deposited below the CCD, but also extended up the continental margin as indicated by the presence of red colored marlstones and limestones embedded in the Chuangde Fm. The latter were deposited above CCD, most probably on the continental slope. The oxic bottom conditions are interpreted to be a result of a combination of climate cooling, active bottom ocean circulation, and change in the ocean-atmosphere oxygen budget.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Turner P. Continental Red Beds. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1980. 1–567
Van Houten F B. Origin of red beds: A review-1961–1972. Annual Review of Earth Planetary Science, 1973, 1: 39–61
Einsele G. Sedimentary Basins: Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget. Second Ed. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2000. 1–790
Štur D. Bericht über die geologische Übersichts-Aufnahme d. Wassergebietes der Waag und Meutra. Jahrbuch der Geologischen Reichsanstalt, 1860, 11: 17–149
Hu X, Jansa L, Wang C, et al. Upper Cretaceous Oceanic Red beds (CORB) in the Tethys: Occurrence, lithofacies, age and environment. Cretaceous Research, 2005, 26: 3–18
Wang C S, Hu X M. Cretaceous world and oceanic red beds. Earth Sci Front (in Chinese), 2005, 12(2): 11–21
Melinte M C, Jipa D C. Campanian-Maastrichtian marine red beds in Romania: biostratigraphic and genetic significance. Cretaceous Research, 2005, 26: 49–56
Wagreich M, Krenmayer H G. Upper Cretaceous Oceanic Red beds (CORB) in the Northern Calcareous Alps (Nierental Formation, Austria): Slope topography and clastic input as primary controlling factors. Cretaceous Research, 2005, 26: 57–64
Kuhnt W, Holbourn A. Late Cretaceous deep-water benthic foraminiferal biofacies and lithogacies of the western and eastern Tethys. Earth Sci Front, 2005, 12(2): 81–103
Wan X, Lamolda M A, Si J, et al. Foraminiferal stratigraphy of Cretaceous red beds in southern Tibet. Cretaceous Research, 2005, 26: 43–48
Wan X Q, Li G B, Si J L. The distribution and ages of Late Cretaceous—Paleogene oceanic red beds in southern Tibet. Earth Sci Front (in Chinese), 2005, 12(2): 31–37
Li X H, Wang C S, Wan X Q, et al. Verification of stratigraphical sequence and classification of the Chuangde Section of Gyangze, South Tibet. J Stratigraphy (in Chinese), 1999, 23: 303–309
Wang C, Li X, Wan X, et al. The Cretaceous in Gyangze, southern Xizang (Tibet): Redefined. Acta Geol Sin (in Chinese), 2000, 74: 97–107
Li X, Wang C, Hu X. Stratigraphy of deep-water Cretaceous deposits in Gyangze, southern Tibet, China. Cretaceous Research, 2005, 26: 33–41
Wang C, Hu X Jansa L, et al. Upper Cretaceous oceanic red beds in southern Tibet: a major change from anoxic to oxic condition. Cretaceous Research, 2005, 26: 21–32
Zou Y, Kong F, Peng P, et al. Organic geochemical characterization of Upper Cretaceous oxic oceanic sediments in Tibet, China: Apreliminary study. Cretaceous Research, 2005, 26: 65–71
Yu G M, Wang C S, Sedimentary Geology of Xizang (Tibet) Tethys (in Chinese). Beijing: Geological Publishing House, 1990. 1–185
Wang C S, Xia D X, Zhou X, et al. Field Trip Guide: T121/T387 Geology Between the Indus-Yarlung Zangbo Suture Zone and the Himalaya Mountains (Xizang), China. Beijing: Geological Publishing House, 1996. 1–72
Liu J B, Aitchison J C. Upper Paleocene radiolarians from the Yamdrok me lange, south Xizang (Tibet), China. Micropaleontology, 2002, 48(Suppl. 1): 145–154
Wang N W, Liu G F, Chen G M. Regional Geology in the Yamzho Yum area in southern Tibet, Contribution to the Geology of the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau No. 3. In: CGQXP Editorial Committee, Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources, PRC, ed. (in Chinese). Beijing: Geological Publishing House, 1983. 1–20
Deaton B C, Balsam W L. Visible spectroscopy—a rapid method for determining hematite and goethite concentration in geological materials. J Sediment Petrol, 1991, 61: 628–632
Balsam W L, Deaton B C. Sediment dispersal in the Atlantic Ocean: evaluation by visible light spectra. Rev Aqua Sci, 1991, 4: 411–447
Rock-Color Chart Committee, Rock Color Charts. Geological Society of American, 1991
Mason B, Moore C B. Principles of Geochemistry. 4th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1982. 1–153
Glasby G P. Mineralogy, geochemistry, and origin of Pacific red clays: A review. New Zealand J Geol Geophy, 1991, 34: 167–176
Eren M, Kadir S. Colour origin of Upper Cretaceous pelagic red sediments within the Eastern Pontides, northeast Turkey. Int J Earth Sci, 1999, 88: 593–595
Channell J E T, Freeman R, Heller F, et al. Timing of diagenetic haematite growth in red pelagic limestones from Gubbio (Italy). Earth Plane Sci Lett, 1982, 58: 189–201
Kaiho K. Benthic foraminiferal dissolved-oxygen index and dissolved-oxygen levels in the modern ocean. Geology, 1994, 22: 719–722
Morford J L, Emerson S. The geochemistry of redox sensitive trace metals in sediments. Geochim Cosmochim Acta, 1999, 63: 1735–1750
Patzelt A, Li H, Wang J, et al. Palaeomagnetism of Cretaceous to Tertiary sediments from southern Tibet: evidence for the extent of the northern margin of Indian prior to the collision with Eurasia. Tectonophysics, 1996, 259: 259–284
Jenkyns H C, Gale A S, Corfield R M. Carbon and oxygen isotope stratigraphy of the English Chalk and Italian Seaglia and its paleoclimatic significance. Geological Magazine, 1994, 131: 1–34
Voigt S, Wiese F. Evidence for Late Cretaceous (Late Turonian) climate cooling from oxygen-isotope variations and palaeobiogeographic changes in Western and Central Europe. J Geol Soc Lond, 2000, 157: 737–743
Spicer R A, Parrish J T. Late Cretaceous-early Tertiary palaeoclimates of northern high latitudes: a quantitative view. J Geol Soc Lond, 1990, 147: 329–341
Clarke L J, Jenkyns H. New oxygen isotope evidence for long-term Cretaceous climatic change in the Southern Hemisphere. Geology, 1999, 27: 699–702
Hay W W, DeConto R M. Comparison of modern and late Cretaceous meridional energy transport and oceanology. In: Barrera E, Johnson C C, eds. Evolution of the Cretaceous Ocean-Climate System. Geological Society of America Special Paper 332, 1999. 283–300
Ricou L E. The plate tectonic history of the past Tethys Ocean. Nairn A E M, Ricou L E, Vrielynck B, et al. eds. The Ocean Basins and Margins. New York and London: Plenum Press, 1995. 3–70
Hay W W, Deconto R M, Wold C N, et al. Alternative global Cretaceous paleogeography. In: Barrera E, Johnson C C, eds. Evolution of the Cretaceous Ocean-Climate System. Geological Society of America Special Paper 332, 1999. 1–47
Schlanger S O, Arthur M A, Jenkyns H C, et al. The Cenomanian-Turonian oceanic anoxic event, I. stratigraphy and distribution of organic carbon-rich beds and the marine δ 13C excursion. In: Brooks J, Fleet A J, eds. Marine Petroleum Source Rocks. Geological Society Special Publication 26. 1987. 371–399
Arthur M A, Dean W E, Pratt L M. Geochemical and climatic effects of increased marine organic carbon burial at the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary. Nature, 1988, 335: 714–717
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hu, X., Wang, C., Li, X. et al. Upper Cretaceous oceanic red beds in southern Tibet: Lithofacies, environments and colour origin. SCI CHINA SER D 49, 785–795 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-006-0785-7
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-006-0785-7