Abstract
Difficulties with planning, such as negotiating task understandings and goals, can have a profound effect on regulation and task performance when students work collaboratively (Miller and Hadwin, Computers in Human Behaviour, 52, 573-588, 2015a). Despite planning being a common challenge, teams often fail to identify strategies for addressing those challenges successfully. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of team planning support in the form of awareness visualizations (quantified, nominal, and no visualization of individual planning perceptions summarized across group members) on the challenges students face during collaboration, and the ways they report regulating in the face of those challenges. Findings revealed differences across conditions. Individuals in the no visualization condition (a) rated planning as more problematic, and (b) were likely to encounter doing the task, checking progress, and group work challenges when they encounter planning challenges, (c) reported more time and planning main challenges compared to doing the task and group work challenges, and (d) reported that planning strategies (adopted as a team) were most effective for addressing planning challenges, followed by teamwork strategies which were less effective. In contrast, individuals belonging to groups who received one of the two visualizations (a) reported that both planning and teamwork strategies to be equally effective for addressing planning challenges, and (b) reported higher levels of success with their strategies than groups without a visualization support. Findings attest to the importance of supporting group planning with planning visualizations.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
We use the term ameliorate to imply that successful teamwork does not require challenges to be eliminated. Rather, teams should respond to challenges in ways that resolve them or minimize their impact by making them more manageable/tolerable.
References
Bakhtiar, A., Webster, E. A., & Hadwin, A. F. (2017). Regulation and socio-emotional interactions in a positive and a negative group climate. Metacognition and Learning, 1–34.
Bannert, M., & Reimann, P. (2012). Supporting self-regulated hypermedia learning through prompts. Instructional Science, 40(1), 193–211.
Barron, B. (2003). When smart groups fail. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 12(3), 307–359.
Blumenfeld, P. C., Marx, R. W., Soloway, E., & Krajcik, J. (1996). Learning with peers: From small group cooperation to collaborative communities. Educational Researcher, 25(8), 37–39.
Buder, J., & Bodemer, D. (2008). Supporting controversial CSCL discussions with augmented group awareness tools. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 3(2), 123–139.
Butler, D. L., & Winne, P. H. (1995). Feedback and self-regulated learning: A theoretical synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 65(3), 245–281.
Catone, J. (2008). GitHub: A Social Network for Programmers. Retrieved from https://readwrite.com/2008/04/11/github_a_social_network_for_programmers/. Accessed 8 June 2018.
Chiu, M. M., & Khoo, L. (2003). Rudeness and status effects during group problem solving: Do they bias evaluations and reduce the likelihood of correct solutions? Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(3), 506–523.
De Dreu, C. K. W., & Weingart, L. R. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4), 741–749.
Edmondson, A. C., & Roloff, K. S. (2009). Overcoming barriers to collaboration: Psychological safety and learning in diverse teams. Team Effectiveness in Complex Organizations: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives and Approaches, 34, 183–208.
Fischer, F., Kollar, I. N. G. O., Stegmann, K. A. R. S. T. E. N., Wecker, C. H. R. I. S. T. O. F., Zottmann, J., & Weinberger, A. (2013). Collaboration scripts in computer-supported collaborative learning. The international handbook of collaborative learning, 403–419.
Fransen, J., Kirschner, P. A., & Erkens, G. (2011). Mediating team effectiveness in the context of collaborative learning: The importance of team and task awareness. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(3), 1103–1113.
Greene, J. A., Hutchison, L. A., Costa, L. J., & Crompton, H. (2012). Investigating how college students’ task definitions and plans relate to self-regulated learning processing and understanding of a complex science topic. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37(4), 307–320.
Gunawardena, C., Carabajal, K., & Lowe, C. A. (2001). Critical analysis of models and methods used to evaluate online learning networks. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED456159.
Hadwin, A. F., & Winne, P. H. (2012). Promoting learning skills in undergraduate students. In Enhancing the quality of learning: Dispositions, instruction, and mental structures (pp. 201–227).
Hadwin, A. F., Malmberg, J., Järvelä, S., Jarvenoja, H., & Vainiopää, M. V. (2010). Exploring socially-shared metacognition in the context of shared task perceptions and goals. Paper presented at the 4th Biennial Meeting of the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction SIG-16 Metacognition, Muenster, Germany.
Hadwin, A. F., Järvelä, S., & Miller, M. (2011). Self-regulated, co-regulated, and socially shared regulation of learning. In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 65–84). New York: Routledge.
Hadwin, A.F., Webster, E., Bakhtiar, A., & Caird, H. (2015). Challenges in Teamwork: Examining the effects of 4 different planning scripts. Paper presented at the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction, Limassol, Cyprus.
Hadwin, A. F., Järvelä, S., & Miller, M. (2017). Self-regulation, co-regulation, and shared regulation in collaborative learning environments. In D. H. Schunk & J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Holm, S. (1979). A simple sequentially rejective multiple test procedure. Scandinavian Journal of Statistics., 6(2), 65–70.
Hommes, J., Van den Bossche, P., de Grave, W., Bos, G., Schuwirth, L., & Scherpbier, A. J. J. A. (2013). Understanding the effects of time on collaborative learning processes in problem based learning: A mixed methods study. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 19(4), 541–563.
Hox, J. J., Moerbeek, M., & van de Schoot, R. (2010). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications. Routledge.
Isohätälä, J., Järvenoja, H., & Järvelä, S. (2017). Socially shared regulation of learning and participation in social interaction in collaborative learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 81, 11–24.
Janssen, J., Erkens, G., Kirschner, P. A., & Kanselaar, G. (2012). Task-related and social regulation during online collaborative learning. Metacognition and Learning, 7(1), 25–43.
Järvelä, S., & Hadwin, A. F. (2013). New frontiers: Regulating learning in CSCL. Educational Psychologist, 48(1), 25–39.
Järvelä, S., Volet, S., & Järvenoja, H. (2010). Research on motivation in collaborative learning: Moving beyond the cognitive–situative divide and combining individual and social processes. Educational Psychologist, 45(1), 15–27.
Järvelä, S., Kirschner, P. A., Panadero, E., Malmberg, J., Phielix, C., Jaspers, J., et al. (2015). Enhancing socially shared regulation in collaborative learning groups: Designing for CSCL regulation tools. Educational Technology Research and Development, 63(1), 125–142.
Järvenoja, H., & Järvelä, S. (2009). Emotion control in collaborative learning situations: Do students regulate emotions evoked by social challenges? The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 463–481. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709909X402811.
Järvenoja, H., Volet, S., & Järvelä, S. (2013). Regulation of emotions in socially challenging learning situations: An instrument to measure the adaptive and social nature of the regulation process. Educational Psychology, 33(1), 31–58.
Kempler, T. M., & Linnenbrink, E. A. (2006). Helping behaviors in collaborative groups in math: A descriptive analysis. Help seeking in academic settings: Goals, groups and contexts, 89–115.
Kirschner, P. A., Beers, P. J., Boshuizen, H. P., & Gijselaers, W. H. (2008). Coercing shared knowledge in collaborative learning environments. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(2), 403–420.
Kirschner, P. A., Kreijns, K., Phielix, C., & Fransen, J. (2015). Awareness of cognitive and social behaviour in a CSCL environment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 31(1), 59–77.
Koivuniemi, M., Panadero, E., Malmberg, J., & Järvelä, S. (2017). Higher education students’ learning challenges and regulatory skills in different learning situations/Desafíos de aprendizaje y habilidades de regulación en distintas situaciones de aprendizaje en estudiantes de educación superior. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 40(1), 19–55.
Kreijns, K., Kirschner, P. A., & Jochems, W. (2003). Identifying the pitfalls for social interaction in computer-supported collaborative learning environments: A review of the research. Computers in Human Behavior, 19(3), 335–353.
Leinonen, P., Järvelä, S., & Häkkinen, P. (2005). Conceptualizing the awareness of collaboration: A qualitative study of a global virtual team. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 14(4), 301–322.
Luyten, L., Lowyck, J., & Tuerlinckx, F. (2001). Task perception as a mediating variable: A contribution to the validation of instructional knowledge. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71(2), 203–223.
McCardle, L., Helm, S., Hadwin, A.F., Shaw, K., & Wild, P. (2011). Regulation of learning in the context of collaborative challenges. Poster presented at the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction, Exeter, United Kingdom.
Miller M., Hadwin, A. (2013). Negotiating task perceptions during computer-supported collaborative problem-solving. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Canadian Society for the Study of Education Victoria, BC.
Miller, M., & Hadwin, A. F. (2015a). Scripting and awareness tools for regulating collaborative learning: Changing the landscape of support in CSCL. Computers in zHuman Behaviour, 52, 573–588.
Miller, M., & Hadwin, A. F (2015b). Investigating CSCL supports for shared task perceptions in socially shared regulation of collaborative learning. Manuscript in submission.
Miller, M., Malmberg, J, Hadwin, A, Jarvela, S. (2013). Tracing shared task perceptions in online collaboration. Paper presented at the annual conference of the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction, University of Munich, Germany.
Mulryan, C. M. (1992). Student passivity during cooperative small groups in mathematics. The Journal of Educational Research, 85(5), 261–273.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus: Statistical analysis with latent variables: User's guide. Los Angeles.
Näykki, P., Järvelä, S., Kirschner, P. A., & Järvenoja, H. (2014). Socio-emotional conflict in collaborative learning—A process-oriented case study in a higher education context. International Journal of Educational Research, 68, 1–14.
Näykki, P., Isohätälä, J., Järvelä, S., Pöysä-Tarhonen, J., & Häkkinen, P. (2017). Facilitating socio-cognitive and socio-emotional monitoring in collaborative learning with a regulation macro script–an exploratory study. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 12(3), 251–279.
Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (Vol. 1). Newbury Park: Sage.
Reimann, P., & Bannert, M. (2017). Self-regulation of learning and performance in computer-supported collaborative learning environments. In D. H. Schunk & J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Rogat, T. K., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2011). Socially shared regulation in collaborative groups: An analysis of the interplay between quality of social regulation and group processes. Cognition and Instruction, 29(4), 375–415.
Romano, D. M., & Brna, P. (2001). Presence and reflection in training: Support for learning to improve quality decision-making skills under time limitations. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 4(2), 265–277.
Rummel, N., Spada, H., & Hauser, S. (2009). Learning to collaborate while being scripted or by observing a model. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 4(1), 69–92.
Schellings, G. L., & Broekkamp, H. (2011). Signaling task awareness in think-aloud protocols from students selecting relevant information from text. Metacognition and Learning, 6(1), 65–82.
Sobocinski, M., Malmberg, J., & Järvelä, S. (2017). Exploring temporal sequences of regulatory phases and associated interactions in low- and high-challenge collaborative learning sessions. Metacognition and Learning, 12(2), 275–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-016-9167-5.
Strijbos, J. W., Kirschner, P. A., & Martens, R. L. (2004). What we know about CSCL: And implementing it in higher education. Computer-supported collaborative learning series (Vol. 3). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Summers, M., & Volet, S. (2010). Group work does not necessarily equal collaborative learning: Evidence from observations and self-reports. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 25(4), 473–492.
Van den Bossche, P., Gijselaers, H. W., Segers, M., & Kirschner, P. A. (2006). Social and cognitive factors driving teamwork in collaborative learning environments: Team learning beliefs and behaviors. Small Group Research, 37(5), 490–521.
Van Ginkel, W. P., & Van Knippenberg, D. (2008). Group information elaboration and group decision making: The role of shared task representations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 105(1), 82–97.
Walker, A. (2001). British psychology students’ perceptions of group-work and peer assessment. Psychology Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 28–36.
Winne, P. H., & Hadwin, A. F. (1998). Studying as self-regulated engagement in learning. In D. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 277–304). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Winne, P. H., & Hadwin, A. F. (2008). The weave of motivation and self-regulated learning. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation and Self-regulated learning: Theory, Research and Applications (pp. 298–314). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Zarnoth, P., & Sniezek, J. A. (1997). The social influence of confidence in group decision making. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33(4), 345–366.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 3–17.
Acknowledgements
Support for this research was provided by an Insight Grant for research to Hadwin, A.F., & Winne P.H. from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (435–2012-0529).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hadwin, A.F., Bakhtiar, A. & Miller, M. Challenges in online collaboration: effects of scripting shared task perceptions. Intern. J. Comput.-Support. Collab. Learn 13, 301–329 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-018-9279-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-018-9279-9