Abstract
Disposal of mine tailings can cause negative environmental effects by releasing contaminants to surface and underground water. Alkali activation is a promising technique for immobilizing metals in stabilization/solidification of these wastes. This study evaluates the leaching behavior of cemented bauxite tailings (BT) submitted to weathering conditions. The alkali-activated binder was composed of sugar cane bagasse ash, carbide lime, and sodium hydroxide solution. Comparisons of the durability and leaching behavior of BT stabilized with alkali-activated binder and high initial strength Portland cement were performed. The durability results for alkali-activated were similar to the Portland cement, showing an average difference of 16%. Portland cement showed favorable results in the encapsulation of heavy metals like Cd and Hg, while the alkali-activated cement on Al, Cr, and Se. For Ba, Fe, Mn, and Zn immobilization, both types of cement presented an equal performance. The durability and leaching behavior of stabilized bauxite tailings is governed by the cement content and porosity of the blends, as well as their pH.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
ABNT – Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (2004a) Resíduos sólidos – Classificação - NBR 10004. ABNT, Rio de Janeiro, BR, p 71. https://www.abntcatalogo.com.br/norma.aspx?Q=V1BmejNuejBUdy9maDNQa2hZemsxU0pmdFF0VDVndmw=
ABNT – Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (2004b) Lixiviação de Resíduos – Procedimento - NBR 10005. ABNT, Rio de Janeiro, BR, p 16. https://www.abntcatalogo.com.br/norma.aspx?Q=VS84THFsRzJOcEk3Y21oN1RHVnF4bWpVRDBnOFF4UHZ6V3NTVE9QWnU2cz0=
ABNT – Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (2004c) Solubilização de Resíduos – Procedimento - NBR 10006. ABNT, Rio de Janeiro, BR, p 3. https://www.abntcatalogo.com.br/norma.aspx?Q=VVFOdmR4d0VRemVTK0lDUWc2anZsNjQvcW9mSksxVTJTMjN4TmhleWpFaz0=
Ahmari S, Parameswaran K, Zhang L (2015) Alkali activation of copper mine tailings and low-calcium flash-furnace copper smelter slag. J Mater Civ Eng 27(6):04014193. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001159
Ahmari S, Zhang L (2013) Durability and leaching behavior of mine tailings-based geopolymer bricks. Constr Build Mater 44:743–750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.03.075
Andrew RM (2019) Global CO2 emissions from cement production, 1928–2018. Earth System Science Data 1–67:2019. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-11-1675-2019
APHA – American Public Health Association (2017) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 23th edn. Washington, DC, USA. https://engage.awwa.org/PersonifyEbusiness/Store/Product-Details/productId/65266295
Apithanyasai S, Supakata N, Papong S (2020) The potential of industrial waste: using foundry sand with fly ash and electric arc furnace slag for geopolymer brick production. Heliyon 6(3):e03697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03697
Arulrajah A, Mohammadinia A, Phummiphan I, Horpibulsuk S, Samingthong W (2016) Stabilization of recycled demolition aggregates by geopolymers comprising calcium carbide residue, fly ash and slag precursors. Constr Build Mater 114:864–873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.03.150
ASTM (2012) Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using modified effort (56,000 ft-lbf/ft3 (2,700 kN-m/m3)). D1557–12e1. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA. 14
ASTM (2014a) Standard test method for leaching solid material in a column apparatus. D4874. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA. 8
ASTM (2014b) Standard test methods for specific gravity of soil solids by water pycnometer. D854. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA. 7
ASTM (2015) Standard test methods for wetting and drying compacted soil-cement mixtures. D559/D559M. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA. 6
ASTM (2017a) Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes (Unified Soil Classification System). D2487. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA. 10
ASTM (2017b) Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils. D4318. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA. 20
ASTM (2017c) Standard test method for particle-size distribution (gradation) of fine-grained soils using the sedimentation (hydrometer) analysis. D7928. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA. 25
Bastos LAC, Silva GC, Mendes JC, Peixoto RAF (2016) Using iron ore tailings from tailing dams as road material. J Mater Civ Eng 28(10):04016102. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001613
Benzaazoua M, Bussière B, Demers I, Aubertin M, Fried É, Blier A (2008) Integrated mine tailings management by combining environmental desulphurization and cemented paste backfill: Application to mine Doyon, Quebec. Canada Miner Eng 21(4):330–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2007.11.012
Bruschi GJ, Fante F, Tonini de Araújo M, Dias Macedo G, Ruver CA (2021a) Analysis of different failure criteria to evaluate bauxite tailings mechanical behavior through numerical modelling. Soils and Rocks 44(1):1–10
Bruschi GJ, Santos CP, dosFerrazzo ST, Araújo MT, de Consoli NC (2021b) Parameters controlling loss of mass and stiffness degradation of green stabilized bauxite tailings. Proc Inst Civ Eng.: Geotech Eng. 1–21
Bruschi GJ, dos Santos CP, Tonini de Araújo M, Ferrazzo ST, Marques SFV, Consoli NC (2021c) Green stabilization of bauxite tailings: mechanical study on alkali-activated materials. J Mater Civ Eng 33(11):06021007
Bye GC (1999) Portland cement composition: production and properties, 2nd edn. Thomas Telford Publishing, London, p 248
CONAMA (2013) Altera a Resolução no 420, de 28 de dezembro de 2009, do Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente-CONAMA, que dispõe sobre critérios e valores orientadores de qualidade do solo quanto à presença de substâncias químicas e dá outras providências. Resolução 460. Official Diary of the Union, Brasília, BR, Official Diary of the Union. 1
Consoli NC, Carretta MS, Festugato L, Leon HB, Tomasi LF, Heineck KS (2020a) Ground waste glass–carbide lime as a sustainable binder stabilising three different silica sands. Géotechnique 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.18.P.099
Consoli NC, Carretta MS, Leon HB, Schneider MEB, Reginato NC, Carraro JAH (2020b) Behaviour of cement-stabilised silty sands subjected to harsh environmental conditions. Proc Inst Civ Eng.: Geotech Eng 173(1):40–48. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeen.18.00243
Consoli NC, Leon HB, Carretta MS, Daronco JVL, Lourenço DE (2019) The effects of curing time and temperature on stiffness, strength and durability of sand-environment friendly binder blends. Soils Found 59(5):1428–1439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2019.06.007
Consoli NC, QuiñónezSamaniego RA, González LE, Bittar EJ, Cuisinier O (2018a) Impact of severe climate conditions on loss of mass, strength, and stiffness of compacted fine-grained soils–Portland cement blends. J Mater Civ Eng 30(8):04018174. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002392
Consoli NC, Silva AP, Nierwinski HP, Sosnoski J (2018b) Durability, strength, and stiffness of compacted gold tailings – cement mixes. Can Geotech J 55(4):486–494. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-0391
Cristelo N, Coelho J, Oliveira M, Consoli NC, Palomo A, Fernández-Jiménez A (2020) Recycling and application of mine tailings in alkali-activated cements and mortars–strength development and environmental assessment. Appl Sci 10:2084. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10062084
Deja J (2015) Immobilization of Cr6+, Cd2+, Zn2+ and Pb2+ in alkali-activated slag binders. Cem Concr Res 32:1971–1979. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00904-3
Desogus P, Manca PP, Orrù G, Zucca A (2013) Stabilization–solidification treatment of mine tailings using Portland cement, potassium dihydrogen phosphate and ferric chloride hexahydrate. Miner Eng 45:47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2013.01.003
Eštoková A, Palaščáková L, Singovszká E, Holub M (2012) Analysis of the chromium concentrations in cement materials. Procedia Engineering 42:123–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2012.07.402
Fernández-Jiménez A, Cristelo N, Miranda T, Palomo A (2017) Sustainable alkali activated materials: precursor and activator derived from industrial wastes. J Clean Prod 162:1200–1209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.151
Furlan JPR, dos Santos LDR, Moretto JAS, Ramos MS, Gallo IFL, Alves GAD, Paulelli AC, Rocha CCS, Cesila CA, Gallimberti M, Devóz PP, Júnior FB, Stehling EG (2020) Occurrence and abundance of clinically relevant antimicrobial resistance genes in environmental samples after the Brumadinho dam disaster. Brazil Sci Total Environ 726:138100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138100
Gama FF, Paradella WR, Mura JC, de Oliveira CG (2019) Advanced DINSAR analysis on dam stability monitoring: a case study in the Germano mining complex (Mariana, Brazil) with SBAS and PSI techniques. Remote Sens Appl Soc Environ 16:100267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2019.100267
Ghosh I, Guha S, Balasubramaniam R, Kumar AVR (2011) Leaching of metals from fresh and sintered red mud. J Hazard Mater 185:662–668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.09.069
Gomes LEO, Correa LB, Sá F, Neto RR, Bernardino AF (2017) The impacts of the Samarco mine tailing spill on the Rio Doce estuary. Eastern Brazil Mar Pollut Bull 120(1–2):28–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.04.056
Khoeurn K, Sakaguchi A, Tomiyama S, Igarashi T (2019) Long-term acid generation and heavy metal leaching from the tailings of Shimokawa mine, Hokkaido, Japan: Column study under natural condition. J Geochem Explor 201:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.03.003
Kiventerä J, Piekkari K, Isteri V, Ohenoja K, Tanskanen P, Illikainen M (2019) Solidification/stabilization of gold mine tailings using calcium sulfoaluminate-belite cement. J Clean Prod 239:118008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118008
Kushwaha SS, Kishan D (2016) Stabilization of red mud by lime and gypsum and investigating its possible use in geoenvironmental engineering. Geo-Chicago. 978–988. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784480144.097
Ladd RS (1978) Preparing test specimens using undercompaction. Geotech Test J 1(1):16–23
Lancellotti I, Barbieri L, Leonelli C (2015) Use of alkali-activated concrete binders for toxic waste immobilization. Handbook of Alkali-activated Cements, Mortars and Concretes, Elsevier Ltd. 539–554. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781782422884.4.539
Li Y, Min X, Ke Y, Liu D, Tang C (2019) Preparation of red mud-based geopolymer materials from MSWI fly ash and red mud by mechanical activation. Waste Manage 83:202–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.11.019
Liu H, Probst A, Liao B (2005) Metal contamination of soils and crops affected by the Chenzhou lead/zinc mine spill (Hunan, China). Sci Total Environ 339(1–3):153–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.07.030
Liu R, Liu J, Zhang Z, Borthwick A, Zhang K (2015) Accidental water pollution risk analysis of mine tailings ponds in Guanting reservoir Watershed, Zhangjiakou city, China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 12(12):15269–15284. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121214983
Mileusnić M, Mapani BS, Kamona AF, Ružičić S, Mapaure I, Chimwamurombe PM (2014) Assessment of agricultural soil contamination by potentially toxic metals dispersed from improperly disposed tailings, Kombat mine, Namibia. J Geochem Explor 144:409–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2014.01.009
Mitchell JK, Soga K (2005) Fundamentals of soil behavior, 3rd edn. John Wiley & Sons, New York, p 560
Mukiza E, Zhang L, Liu X, Zhang N (2019) Utilization of red mud in road base and subgrade materials: a review. Resour Conserv Recycl 141:187–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.10.031
Mymrin V, Alekseev K, Fortini OM, Aibuldinov YK, Pedroso CL, Nagalli A, Winter E Jr, Catai RE, Costa EBC (2017) Environmentally clean materials from hazardous red mud, ground cooled ferrous slag and lime production waste. J Clean Prod 161:376–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.109
Nehdi M, Tariq A (2007) Stabilization of sulphidic mine tailings for prevention of metal release and acid drainage using cementitious materials: a review. J Environ Eng Sci 6(4):423–436. https://doi.org/10.1139/s06-060
NEN 7375:2004. Leaching characteristics - Determination of the leaching of inorganic components from moulded or monolitic materials with a diffusion test - Solid earthy and stony materials
Obenaus-Emler R, Falah M, Illikainen M (2020) Assessment of mine tailings as precursors for alkali-activated materials for on-site applications. Constr Build Mater 246:118470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118470
Pacheco-Torgal F, Jalali S (2011) Resistance to acid attack, abrasion and leaching behavior of alkali-activated mine waste binders. Mater Struct 44:487–498. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-010-9643-3
Pacheco-Torgal F, Labrincha JA, Leonelli C, Palomo A, Chindaprasirt P (2015) Handbook of alkali-activated cements, mortars and concretes. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2013-0-16511-7
Pereira dos Santos C, Bruschi GJ, Mattos JRG, Consoli NC (2022) Stabilization of gold mining tailings with alkali-activated carbide lime and sugarcane bagasse ash. Transportation Geotechnics, 32(November 2021): 100704
PCA – Portland Cement Association (1992) Soil-cement laboratory handbook. Portland Cement Association. http://secement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/EB052.07s.pdf
Quiñónez Samaniego RA, Scheuermann Filho HC, de Araújo MT, Bruschi GJ, Festugato L, Consoli NC (2021) Key parameters controlling strength and resilient modulus of a stabilised dispersive soil. Road Materials and Pavement Design, (December): 1–16
Rai S, Bahadure S, Chaddha MJ, Agnihotri A (2019) Disposal practices and utilization of red mud (bauxite residue): a review in Indian context and abroad. J Sustain Metall 6:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-019-00247-5
Saldanha RB, ScheuermannFilho HC, Mallmann JEC, Consoli NC (2016) Physical-mineralogical-chemical characterization of carbide lime: an environment-friendly chemical additive for soil stabilization. J Mater Civ Eng 30(6):06018004. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002283
Sas Z, Sha W, Soutsos M, Doherty R, Bondar D, Gijbels K, Schroeyers W (2019) Radiological characterisation of alkali-activated construction materials containing red mud, fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Sci Total Environ 659:1496–1504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.006
Tiwari MK, Bajpai S, Dewangan UK, Tamrakar RK (2015) Suitability of leaching test methods for fly ash and slag: a review. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences 8(4):523–537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrras.2015.06.003
Tonini de Araújo M, Tonatto Ferrazzo S, Bruschi GJ, Cesar Consoli N (2021) Mechanical and environmental performance of eggshell lime for expansive soils improvement. Transportation Geotechnics, Elsevier Ltd, 31(November): 100681
USEPA (2021) Ground water and drinking water: national primary drinking water regulations. Accessed January 11, 2021. https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations#Inorganic
Valenzuela EI, García-Figueroa AC, Amábilis-Sosa LE, Molina-Freaner FE, Pat-Espadas AM (2020) Stabilization of potentially toxic elements contained in mine waste: a microbiological approach for the environmental management of mine tailings. J Environ Manage 270:110873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110873
VROM – Spatial Planning and the Environment (2000) Dutch target and intervention values. Ministerie van Volksuisveting Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer. p 51. https://www.esdat.net/environmental%20standards/dutch/annexs_i2000dutch%20environmental%20standards.pdf
Xiaolong Z, Shiyu Z, Hui L, Yingliang Z (2021) Disposal of mine tailings via geopolymerization. J Clean Prod 284:124756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124756
Yaghoubi M, Arulrajah A, Disfani MM, Horpibulsuk S, Bo MW, Darmawan S (2018) Effects of industrial by-product based geopolymers on the strength development of a soft soil. Soils Found 58(3):716–728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2018.03.005
Zhihua P, Jun Z, Weiqing L (2015) Solidification/stabilization of zinc-lead tailings by alkali activated slag cement. J Wuhan Univ Technol Mater Sci 30(1):105–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11595-015-1109-6
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to explicit their appreciation of FAPERGS/CNPq 12/2014 – PRONEX (Project #16/2551-0000469-2), MCT-CNPq (Editais INCT-REAGEO, Universal & Produtividade em Pesquisa), FINEP, PRO-ICT UFFS (Project 2020-0458), and MEC-CAPES (PROEX) for the support to the research group.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Giovani Jordi Bruschi, Carolina Pereira dos Santos, William Mateus Kubiaki Levandoski, and Suéllen Tonatto Ferrazzo. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Giovani Jordi Bruschi, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. In addition, Eduardo Pavan Korf, Rodrigo Beck Saldanha, and Nilo Cesar Consoli were also responsible for the supervision.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bruschi, G.J., dos Santos, C.P., Levandoski, W.M.K. et al. Leaching assessment of cemented bauxite tailings through wetting and drying cycles of durability test. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 59247–59262 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20031-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20031-5