Abstract
The development of the energy sector has played a major role in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and pollution. The situation thus necessitates rigorous actions for climate compatible development (CCD). The energy sector is context-dependent, due to which response strategies for CCD are quite challenging particularly in the context of energy crises and the actors’ capacity issue in developing countries. This study was aimed at exploring the role of government actors involved in governing the energy sector, with the objective to assess their capacity using a set of principles, criteria, and indicators (PCIs). The study attempted to answer the question: is the capacity of the line departments involved in energy governance adequate to achieve the targets set under SDG-7 and SDG-13? For this purpose, the study employed a combination of “Rules-based” and “Rights-based” governance approaches at all tiers of governance, i.e., federal, provincial, and district levels. Actors’ capacity was assessed by developing a governance index based on the scoring of PCIs. Three hundred forty key informant interviews (KIIs) and 17 focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted at federal, provincial, and district levels where respondents were asked to score each of the indicators. Responses were then statistically analyzed and validated. The findings revealed that departments at the federal level are playing an effective role and are adequately equipped to align SDG-7 and SDG-13 with energy sector development. However, departments at the provincial and district levels are still lagging behind to achieve the desired objectives, which demonstrate the need to enhance the capacities of provincial and district line departments.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data is available from the corresponding author with a formal request.
References
AEDB (2019) Alternative and renewable energy policy of Pakistan 2019. Ministry of Energy Power Division, Government of Pakistan. Retrieved from http://www.mowp.gov.pk/frmDetails.aspx. Accessed on 6th April, 2021.
Aized T, Shahid M, Bhatti AA et al (2018) Energy security and renewable energy policy analysis of Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 84:155–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.254
al Irsyad MI, Halog A, Nepal R (2019) Renewable energy projections for climate change mitigation: an analysis of uncertainty and errors. Renew Energy 130:536–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.06.082
Ali I, Iqbal KMJ (2017) Joint efficiency analysis of thermoelectric power plants: energy sector prospects for climate mitigation in Pakistan. Abasyn J Soc Sci 10:232–245
Amer M, Daim TU (2011) Selection of renewable energy technologies for a developing county: a case of Pakistan. Energy Sustain Dev 15:420–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2011.09.001
Andonova LB, Hale TN, Roger CB (2017) National policy and transnational governance of climate change: substitutes or complements? Int Stud Q 61:253–268. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqx014
Anwar J (2016) Analysis of energy security, environmental emission and fuel import costs under energy import reduction targets: a case of Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 65:1065–1078
Awan KY, Rashid A (2012) Overview of Pakistan’s electricity crisis, generation-mix and renewable energy scenarios. Int J Eng Technol 1:321. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v1i4.161
Aziz MF, Abdulaziz N (2010) Prospects and challenges of renewable energy in Pakistan. In: 2010 IEEE International Energy Conference and Exhibition, EnergyCon 2010. pp 161–165. IEEE https://doi.org/10.1109/ENERGYCON.2010.5771667
Baral A, Guha GS (2004) Trees for carbon sequestration or fossil fuel substitution: the issue of cost vs. carbon benefit. Biomass Bioenerg 27:41–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2003.11.004
Bilgen S (2016) The environmental effects of coal-related activities. Energy Sources Part A Recover Util Environ Eff 38:3283–3289
Borgatti SP, Mehra A, Brass DJ, Labianca G (2009) Network analysis in the social sciences. Science (80- ) 323:892–896
Chishti MZ, Ahmad M, Rehman A, Khan MK (2021) Mitigations pathways towards sustainable development: assessing the influence of fiscal and monetary policies on carbon emissions in BRICS economies. J Clean Prod 292:126035. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2021.126035
Costa HG, Gomes CFS, de Barros AP (2017) Sensibility analysis of MCDA using prospective in Brazilian energy sector. J Model Manag 12:475–497. https://doi.org/10.1108/JM2-01-2016-0005
Daim T, Yates D, Peng Y, Jimenez B (2009) Technology assessment for clean energy technologies: the case of the Pacific Northwest. Technol Soc 31:232–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2009.03.009
Dey PK (2012) Project risk management using multiple criteria decision-making technique and decision tree analysis: a case study of Indian oil refinery. Prod Plan & Control 23:903–921. https://doi.org/10.1080/09537287.2011.586379
Edwards W (1977) How to use multiattribute utility measurement for social decision making. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern 7:326–340. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.1977.4309720
Farooq MK, Kumar S (2013) An assessment of renewable energy potential for electricity generation in Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 20:240–254
Fekete H, Kuramochi T, Roelfsema M et al (2021) A review of successful climate change mitigation policies in major emitting economies and the potential of global replication. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 137 (March 2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110602
Gärtner S, Reynolds KM, Hessburg PF et al (2008) Decision support for evaluating landscape departure and prioritizing forest management activities in a changing environment. For Ecol Manage 256:1666–1676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2008.05.053
Georgilakis PS (2011) Environmental cost of distribution transformer losses. Appl Energy 88:3146–3155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.12.021
GoP (2011) National Economic & Environmental Development Study Pakistan. Government of Pakistan. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/pakistanneeds.pdf. Accessed on 6 Jan 2021.
GoP (2012) National Climate Change Policy. Ministry of Climate Change, Government of Pakistan (GoP). Islamabad. Retrieved from http://www.mocc.gov.pk/frmDetails.aspx. Accessed on 7 Jan 2021
GoP (2017) Pakistan Climate Change Act. The Gazette of Pakistan, Pakistan. Retrieved from http://www.mocc.gov.pk/Detail/ZDJmNDFmYzItY2RhNy00N2VmLWI4N2EtYjg5NjJjMjE3NDg1. Accessed on 12 Jan 2021
GoP (2016a) National Energy Efficiency & Conservation Authority (NEECA). In: Projects. https://www.neeca.gov.pk/
GoP (2016b) The National Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act 2016b. The Gazette of Pakistan, Pakistan retrieved from https://neeca.gov.pk/Detail/ZWM4M2MxMzUtNWE1YS00YTg4LTliMmMtYjg4M2IymE2NjJk. Accessed on 18 Jan 2021.
GoP (2006) Policy for development of renewable energy for power generation. Government of Pakistan. Retrieved from https://www.aedb.org/aetechnologies/wind-power/20-wind-policies/9-policy-for-development-of-renewable-energy-for-power-generation-2. Accessed on 18 Jan 2021.
Harijan K, Uqaili MA, Memon M (2008, April) Renewable energy for managing energy crisis in Pakistan. In International Multi Topic Conference (pp. 449-455). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-89853-5_48
Hassan M, Afridi MK, Khan MI (2018) An overview of alternative and renewable energy governance, barriers, and opportunities in Pakistan. Energy Environ 29:184–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X17743036
Hassan M, Khan Afridi M, Irfan Khan M (2019) Energy policies and environmental security: a multi-criteria analysis of energy policies of Pakistan. Int J Green Energy 16:510–519. https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2019.1593177
Hassan M, Khan MI, Mumtaz MW, Mukhtar H (2021) Energy and environmental security nexus in Pakistan. In: Asif M (ed) Energy and environmental security in developing countries. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 147–172
He W, Abbas Q, Alharthi M et al (2020) Integration of renewable hydrogen in light-duty vehicle: nexus between energy security and low carbon emission resources. Int J Hydrogen Energy 45:27958–27968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.06.177
Heinrich Blechinger PF, Shah KU (2011) A multi-criteria evaluation of policy instruments for climate change mitigation in the power generation sector of Trinidad and Tobago. Energy Policy 39:6331–6343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.07.034
Herrmann L (2020) Knowledge product challenges and lessons learned in the preparation of intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs ) Retrieved from https://newclimate.org/2016/03/09/challenges-and-lessons-learned-in-the-preparation-of-intended-nationally-determined-contributions-indcs/. Accessed on 20 Jan 2021.
Hovland I (2005) Successful communication. A toolkit for researchers and civil society organisations. Retrieved from https://odi.org/en/publications/successful-communication-a-toolkit-for-researchers-and-civil-society-organisations/. Accessed on 20 Jan 2021.
Hovland I (2005b) Successful communication. A toolkit for researchers and civil society organisations.pdf. Overseas Development Institute 2005b
Hu J, Harmsen R, Crijns-Graus W et al (2018) Identifying barriers to large-scale integration of variable renewable electricity into the electricity market: a literature review of market design. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 81:2181–2195. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.028
Hussain M, Liu G, Yousaf B et al (2018) Regional and sectoral assessment on climate-change in Pakistan: social norms and indigenous perceptions on climate-change adaptation and mitigation in relation to global context. J Clean Prod 200:791–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.272
Iqbal KMJ, Khan MI (2018) Climate governance: implementing water sector adaptation strategies in Pakistan. Policy Perspect 15:139–155. https://doi.org/10.13169/polipers.15.3.0139
Iqbal KMJ, Khan MI (2012) Adaptation to climate change: the way forward for sustainable agriculture in Pakistan. In: Planet Under Pressure 2012 Conference. Paper No. 0187, Elsevier, London, UK. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230883559_Adaptation_to_Climate_Change_The_Way_Forward_for_Sustainable_Agriculture_in_Pakistan. Accessed on 15 Jan 2021.
Irfan M, Zhao Z-Y, Ahmad M, Mukeshimana M (2019) Solar energy development in Pakistan: barriers and policy recommendations. Sustainability 11:1206. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041206
Irfan M, Zhao ZY, Panjwani MK et al (2020) Assessing the energy dynamics of Pakistan: prospects of biomass energy. Energy Rep 6:80–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2019.11.161
Ishtiaque A, Eakin H, Chhetri N et al (2019) Examination of coastal vulnerability framings at multiple levels of governance using spatial MCDA approach. Ocean Coast Manag 171:66–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.01.020
Janjua S, Khan A, Asif N (2018) Impact of CPEC on climate change - policy recommendations. CPEC Policy Pap Ser. Retrieved from https://cpec-centre.pk/working-papers/#. Accessed on 20 Jan 2021.
Kamran M, Fazal MR, Mudassar M (2020) Towards empowerment of the renewable energy sector in Pakistan for sustainable energy evolution: SWOT analysis. Renew Energy 146:543–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.06.165
Kartodihardjo H, Khatarina J, Santosa MA, Safitri M, Soeprihanto P, Effendi S, Sunaryo D (2013) Participatory Governance Assessment: The 2012 Indonesia Forest, Land, and REDD+ Governance Index. Research Report published by UNDP and Government of Indonesia. Retrieved from https://www.id.undp.org/content/indonesia/en/home/library/environment_energy/participatory-governance-assessment--the-2012-indonesia-forest--.html. Accessed on 20 Jan 2021.
Khan MA, Khan JA, Ali Z et al (2016) The challenge of climate change and policy response in Pakistan. Environ Earth Sci 75:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-5127-7
Khan S, Kamran Khan M, Muhammad B (2021) Impact of financial development and energy consumption on environmental degradation in 184 countries using a dynamic panel model. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:9542–9557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11239-4/Published
Khuong PM, McKenna R, Fichtner W (2019) Analyzing drivers of renewable energy development in Southeast Asia countries with correlation and decomposition methods. J Clean Prod 213:710–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.192
Kouser S, Subhan A et al (2020) Uncovering Pakistan’s environmental risks and remedies under the China-Pakistan economic corridor. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:4661–4663
Kuramochi T, Roelfsema M, Hsu A et al (2020) Beyond national climate action: the impact of region, city, and business commitments on global greenhouse gas emissions. Clim Policy 20:275–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2020.1740150
Leskinen P, Kangas J (2005) Rank reversals in multi-criteria decision analysis with statistical modelling of ratio-scale pairwise comparisons. J Oper Res Soc 56:855–861. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jors.2601925
Lin B, Ahmad I (2017) Analysis of energy related carbon dioxide emission and reduction potential in Pakistan. J Clean Prod 143:278–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.113
Liu J-Y, Fujimori S, Takahashi K et al (2019) Identifying trade-offs and co-benefits of climate policies in China to align policies with SDGs and achieve the 2 °C goal. Environ Res Lett 14:124070. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab59c4
Mahama M, Derkyi NSA, Nwabue CM (2021) Challenges of renewable energy development and deployment in Ghana: Perspectives from developers. GeoJournal, 86(3), 1425-1439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-019-10132-z
McIntosh RD, Becker A (2020) Applying MCDA to weight indicators of seaport vulnerability to climate and extreme weather impacts for U.S North Atlantic ports. Environ Syst Decis 40:356–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-020-09767-y
Mondal MAH, Bryan E, Ringler C et al (2018) Ethiopian energy status and demand scenarios: prospects to improve energy efficiency and mitigate GHG emissions. Energy 149:161–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.02.067
Munro P, van der Horst G, Healy S (2017) Energy justice for all? Rethinking sustainable development goal 7 through struggles over traditional energy practices in Sierra Leone. Energy Policy 105:635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.01.038
Norris RH, Webb JA, Nichols SJ et al (2012) Analyzing cause and effect in environmental assessments: using weighted evidence from the literature. Freshw Sci 31:5–21. https://doi.org/10.1899/11-027.1
Olivier JGJ, Peters JAHW (2020) Trends in global CO2 and total greenhouse gas emissions: report 2019. Retrieved from https://www.pbl.nl/en/publications/trends-in-global-co2-and-total-greenhouse-gas-emissions-2020-report. Access on 23 Jan 2021.
Qazi U, Jahanzaib M, Ahmad W, Hussain S (2017) An institutional framework for the development of sustainable and competitive power market in Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 70:83–95
Qudrat-Ullah H (2015) Independent power (or pollution) producers? Electricity reforms and IPPs in Pakistan. Energy 83:240–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.02.018
Serrat O (2017) The five whys technique. In: Knowledge solutions: tools, methods, and approaches to drive organizational performance. Springer Singapore, Singapore, pp 307–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0983-9
Shah M (1999) Synthesis of ecology and economics—towards a new theoretical paradigm. Econ Polit Wkly 34:3293–3298
Shah SAA, Solangi YA, Ikram M (2019) Analysis of barriers to the adoption of cleaner energy technologies in Pakistan using modified delphi and fuzzy analytical hierarchy process. J Clean Prod 235:1037–1050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.07.020
Mohammad S, Mansooreh S, Maryam TR, Reza S (2014) Carbon Dioxide Separation from Flue Gases: A Technological Review Emphasizing Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions, The Scientific World Journal, vol. 2014, Article ID 828131, 34 pages, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/828131
Statistics Division UN (2020) The sustainable development goals report 2020. 68. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/development/desa/publications/publication/sustainable-development-goals-report-2020. Accessed on 8 Feb 2021.
Swain RB, Karimu A (2020) Renewable electricity and sustainable development goals in the EU. World Dev 125:104693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104693
Teng J-Z, Kamran Khan M, Muhammad et al (2021) Effect of foreign direct investment on CO 2 emission with the role of globalization, institutional quality with pooled mean group panel ARDL. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:5271–5282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10823-y/Published
UNFCCC (2016) INDC Statement of Pakistan. Government of Pakistan. Retrieved from https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/submissions/INDC/Submission%20Pages/submissions.aspx. Accessed on 8 Feb 2021.
United Nation Environment Program (2017) The emissions gap report 2017. UN. Retrieved from https://www.unep.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2017. Accessed on 8 Feb 2021.
Das VG, Uqaili MA, Memon HUR et al (2017) Overcoming electricity crisis in Pakistan: a review of sustainable electricity options. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 72:734–745
van Asselt, H., and T. Hale (2016) How non-state actors can contribute to more effective review processes under the Paris Agreement. SEI policy brief. Retrieved from https://www.sei.org/publications/how-non-state-actors-can-contribute-to-more-effectivereview-processes-under-the-paris-agreement/. Accessed on 8 Feb 2021.
Verma M, Loha C, Sinha AN, Chatterjee PK (2017) Drying of biomass for utilising in co-firing with coal and its impact on environment—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 71:732–741
Waheed A, Fischer TB, Khan MI (2021) Climate change policy coherence across policies, plans, and strategies in Pakistan — implications for the China–Pakistan economic corridor plan. Environ Manage 67, 793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-021-01449-y
Wang Y, Xu L, Solangi YA (2020) Strategic renewable energy resources selection for Pakistan: based on SWOT-Fuzzy AHP approach. Sustain Cities Soc 52:101861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101861
Wellman, B. (1983) Network Analysis: Some Basic Principles. Sociological Theory, 1, 155–200. https://doi.org/10.2307/202050.
World Bank (2019) Opportunities for a Clean and Green Pakistan: A Country Environmental Analysis. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank. License: CC BY 3.0 IGO Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/32328. Accessed on 8 Feb 2021.
Xu X, Wei Z, Ji Q et al (2019) Global renewable energy development: influencing factors, trend predictions and countermeasures. Resour Policy 63:101470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.101470
Yuan X, Zuo J (2011) Transition to low carbon energy policies in China-from the five-year plan perspective. Energy Policy 39:3855–3859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.04.017
Zafar U, Ur Rashid T, Khosa AA et al (2018) An overview of implemented renewable energy policy of Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 82:654–665
Zhang L, Godil DI, Bibi M et al (2021) Caring for the environment: how human capital, natural resources, and economic growth interact with environmental degradation in Pakistan? A dynamic ARDL approach. Sci Total Environ 774:145553. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2021.145553
Zheng X, Streimikiene D, Balezentis T et al (2019) A review of greenhouse gas emission profiles, dynamics, and climate change mitigation efforts across the key climate change players. J Clean Prod 234:1113–1133
Zubedi A, Jianqiu Z, Arain QA, Memon I, Khan S, Khan MS, Zhang Y (2018) Sustaining low-carbon emission development: an energy efficient transportation plan for CPEC. Journal of Information Processing Systems, 14(2), 322-345. https://doi.org/10.3745/JIPS.04.0067.
Acknowledgements
The authors express their gratitude to the editorial board and reviewer for the efforts for suggestion and reviewing this paper. The authors also appreciate the editor for his cooperation during the review process.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conceptualization, writing, and data analysis by Kanwar Muhammad Javed Iqbal, Nadia Akhtar, and Muhammad Owais Khan. Review, proofreading, and supervision by Muhammad Irfan Khan. All authors have read and approved this manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
All authors have read and approved this manuscript.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Ilhan Ozturk
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Iqbal, K.M.J., Akhtar, N., Khan, M.O. et al. Mix-method modelling of actors’ capacity for environmental sustainability and climate compatible development in energy sector. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 50632–50646 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19399-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19399-1