Abstract
The presented study discusses biodiesel synthesis by utilizing two wastes: Mesua ferrea Linn (MFL) seed shells (inert support for developing catalysts) and used cooking oil (feedstock). The MFL shells were used for heterogeneous acid and base catalyst development through carbonization, steam activation and subsequent doping of H2SO4 or KOH, which upon instrumental examination showed effective doping of functional groups on the MFL char. The conversion approach uses methanol with sulfonated char (SC) for esterification, while the second stage utilizes 2-propanol for transesterification with KOH-doped char (KC) as a catalyst. Both stages optimize 5 controlling parameters such as mixing intensity, duration of reaction, catalyst load, alcohol concentration and reaction temperature in an L16 Taguchi experimental matrix. Thus, the obtained biodiesel has an ester content of 99.16%, while 97.35% of the free fatty acids (FFA) were converted, resulting in the product showing improved physico-chemical properties as assessed through fuel characterization tests. Reusability tests for the catalysts showed 4 reuses for acid catalyst compared to 9 reuses for base catalyst. Catalyst development costs were only $1.27/kg for activated char, while due to reuse, the prepared catalysts cost only $0.53/kg of biodiesel. Hence, the catalytic process holds great potential for commercialization if scaled up appropriately.
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Acknowledgements
The authors need to express their gratitude to Ms. Sucharita Samanta for her help in graphical interpretation of the results obtained. Sincere gratitude needs to the expressed to the Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, where the studies were carried out.
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The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, for their financial assistance through research project no. EEQ/2016/000243.
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B.K. conceptualized the study and listed necessary resources while also handling software-based experimental designing and formal analysis as well as data curation. He also wrote the original draft. S.M. and S.L.S. were the experimental investigators who also validated obtained data, while G.H. was the supervisor and was in charge of this project. He also took the responsibility of reviewing and editing the manuscript and handling submission related procedures. The final version of the manuscript was read and approved by all authors.
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Karmakar, B., Mukherjee, S., Sengupta, S.L. et al. Recirculating used cooking oil and Nagkesar seed shells in dual-stage catalytic biodiesel synthesis with C1-C3 alcohols. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 58154–58169 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14309-3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14309-3