Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Pharmaceutical wastewater being composite mixture of environmental pollutants may be associated with mutagenicity and genotoxicity

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Pharmaceutical industries are amongst the foremost contributor to industrial waste. Ecological well-being is endangered owing to its facile discharge. In the present study, heavy metals and organic contaminants in waste water were characterized using atomic absorption spectrophotometer and GC-MS, respectively. Mutagenicity and genotoxic potential of pharmaceutical waste water were investigated through bacterial reverse mutation assay and in vitro comet assay, respectively. Ames test and comet assay of first sample were carried out at concentrations of 100, 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25 % v/v effluent with distilled water. Chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), and cadmium (Cd) were found in high concentrations as compared to WHO- and EPA-recommended maximum limits. Arsenic was found to be the most abundant metal and its maximum concentration was 0.8 mg.L−1. GC-MS revealed the presence of lignocaine, digitoxin, trimethoprim, caffeine, and vitamin E in waste water. Dose-dependent decrease in mutagenic index was observed in both strains. Substantial increase in mutagenicity was observed for TA-100, when assay was done by incorporating an enzyme activation system, whereas a slight increase was detected for TA-102. In vitro comet assay of waste water exhibited decrease in damage index and percentage fragmentation with the increase in dilution of waste water. Tail length also decreased with an increase in the dilution factor of waste water. These findings suggest that pharmaceutical waste water being a mix of different heavy metals and organic contaminants may have a potent mutagenic and genotoxic effect on exposed living organisms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alam MZ, Ahmad S, Malik A (2009) Genotoxic and mutagenic potential of agricultural soil irrigated with tannery effluents at Jajmau (Kanpur) India. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 57:463–476

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aleem A, Malik A (2005) Genotoxicity of the Yamuna river water at Okhla (Delhi) India. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 61:404–412

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anyakora C, Nwaeze K, Awodele O, Nwadike C, Arbabi M, Coker H (2011) Concentrations of heavy metals in some pharmaceutical effluents in Lagos, Nigeria. J Environ Chem Ecotoxicol 3:25–31

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Binelli A, Cogni D, Parolini M, Riva C, Provini A (2009) Cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of in vitro exposure to triclosan and trimethoprim on zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) hemocytes. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 150:50–56

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chang H, Hu J, Shao B (2007) Occurrence of natural and synthetic glucocorticoids in sewage treatment plants and receiving river waters. Environ Sci Technol 41:3462–3468

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Costa M (1997) Toxicity and carcinogenicity of Cr (VI) in animal models and humans. Crit Rev Toxicol 27:431–442

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crouse BA, Ghoshdastidar AJ, Tong AZ (2012) The presence of acidic and neutral drugs in treated sewage effluents and receiving waters in the Cornwallis and Annapolis River watersheds and the Mill CoveSewage Treatment Plant in Nova Scotia Canada. Environ Res 112:92–99

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fatima RA, Ahmad M (2006) Genotoxicity of industrial wastewaters obtained from two different pollution sources in northern India: a comparison of three bioassays. Mutat Res Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 609:81–91

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frenzilli G, Nigro M, Lyons B (2009) The Comet assay for the evaluation of genotoxic impact in aquatic environments. Mutat Res Rev Mutat Res 681:80–92

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gagné F, Blaise C, Fournier M, Hansen P (2006) Effects of selected pharmaceutical products on phagocytic activity in Elliptio complanata mussels. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 143:179–186

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gebel T, Birkenkamp P, Luthin S, Dunkelberg H (1997) Arsenic (III), but not antimony (III), induces DNA-protein crosslinks. Anticancer Res 18:4253–4257

    Google Scholar 

  • Goering PL, Aposhian HV, Mass MJ, Cebrián M, Beck BD, Waalkes MP (1999) The enigma of arsenic carcinogenesis: role of metabolism. Toxicol Sci 49:5–14

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gowd SS, Govil PK (2008) Distribution of heavy metals in surface water of Ranipet industrial area in Tamil Nadu India. Environ Monit Assess 136:197–207

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grandjean P, Landrigan PJ (2014) Neurobehavioural effects of developmental toxicity. Lancet Neurol 13:330–338

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halling-Sørensen B, Nielsen SN, Lanzky P, Ingerslev F, Lützhøft HH, Jørgensen S (1998) Occurrence, fate and effects of pharmaceutical substances in the environment—a review. Chemosphere 36:357–393

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hilton MJ, Thomas KV (2003) Determination of selected human pharmaceutical compounds in effluent and surface water samples by high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 1015:129–141

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jim TY, Bisceglia KJ, Bouwer EJ, Roberts AL, Coelhan M (2012) Determination of pharmaceuticals and antiseptics in water by solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry: analysis via pentafluorobenzylation and stable isotope dilution. Anal Bioanal Chem 403:583–591

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lokhande RS, Singare PU, Pimple DS (2011) Toxicity study of heavy metals pollutants in waste water effluent samples collected from Taloja Industrial Estate of Mumbai, India. Resour Environ 1:13–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Lozano MdC (2013) Method development for a chemical and biological analysis of glucocorticoids in wastewater. The University of Texas at El Paso

  • Ma J, Ding Z, Wei G, Zhao H, Huang T (2009) Sources of water pollution and evolution of water quality in the Wuwei basin of Shiyang river, Northwest China. J Environ Manag 90:1168–1177

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moore JW, Ramamoorthy S (2012) Heavy metals in natural waters: applied monitoring and impact assessment. Springer Science & Business Media

  • Mortelmans K, Zeiger E (2000) The Ames Salmonella/microsome mutagenicity assay. Mutat Res Fundam Mol Mech Mutagen 455:29–60

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mourón SA, Golijow CD, Dulout FN (2001) DNA damage by cadmium and arsenic salts assessed by the single cell gel electrophoresis assay. Mutat Res Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 498:47–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nikolaou A, Meric S, Fatta D (2007) Occurrence patterns of pharmaceuticals in water and wastewater environments. Anal Bioanal Chem 387:1225–1234

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rank J, Jensen K, Jespersen PH (2005) Monitoring DNA damage in indigenous blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) sampled from coastal sites in Denmark. Mutat Res Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen 585:33–42

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robards K, Worsfold P (1991) Cadmium: toxicology and analysis. A review. Analyst 116:549–568

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rúa-Gómez PC, Püttmann W (2012) Occurrence and removal of lidocaine, tramadol, venlafaxine, and their metabolites in German wastewater treatment plants. Environ Sci Pollut Res 19:689–699

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seiler RL, Zaugg SD, Thomas JM, Howcroft DL (1999) Caffeine and pharmaceuticals as indicators of waste water contamination in wells. Groundwater 37:405–410

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shakir L, Ejaz S, Ashraf M, Ahmad N, Javeed A (2012) Characterization of tannery effluent wastewater by proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) analysis to investigate their role in water pollution. Environ Sci Pollut Res 19:492–501

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singare P, Dhabarde S (2014) Toxic metals pollution due to industrial effluents released along Dombivali Industrial Belt of Mumbai, India European. J Environ Saf Sci 2:5–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabrez S, Ahmad M (2009) Effect of wastewater intake on antioxidant and marker enzymes of tissue damage in rat tissues: implications for the use of biochemical markers. Food Chem Toxicol 47:2465–2478

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tabrez S, Ahmad M (2011) Mutagenicity of industrial wastewaters collected from two different stations in northern India. J Appl Toxicol 31:783–789

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka H, Tsukuma H, Oshima A (2010) Long-term prospective study of 6104 survivors of arsenic poisoning during infancy due to contaminated milk powder in 1955. J Epidemiol 20:439

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tchounwou PB, Patlolla AK, Centeno JA (2003) Invited reviews: carcinogenic and systemic health effects associated with arsenic exposure—a critical review. Toxicol Pathol 31:575–588

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tice R, Agurell E, Anderson D, Burlinson B, Hartmann A, Kobayashi H, Miyamae Y, Rojas E, Ryu JC, Sasaki YF (2000) Single cell gel/comet assay: guidelines for in vitro and in vivo genetic toxicology testing. Environ Mol Mutagen 35:206–221

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Velagaleti R, Burns P (2006) The Industrial ecology of pharmaceutical raw materials and finished products with emphasis on supply chain management activities the industrial ecology of pharmaceutical raw materials and finished products with emphasis on supply chain management activities

  • Waalkes MP (2003) Cadmium carcinogenesis. Mutat Res Fundam Mol Mech Mutagen 533:107–120

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu Y, Wu L, Chang AC (2013) Seasonal variation of endocrine disrupting compounds, pharmaceuticals and personal care products in wastewater treatment plants. Sci Total Environ 442:310–316

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zaman K (2011) Review of Pakistan pharmaceutical industry: SWOT analysis. Int J Bus Inf Technol 1

  • Zaroual Z, Azzi M, Saib N, Karhat Y, Zertoubi M (2005) Treatment of tannery effluent by an electrocoagulation process. J Am Leather Chem Assoc 100:16–21

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

I am thankful to Dr. Imran Altaf for their kind support and supplying us with the strains of bacteria.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

    Ali Sharif, Muhammad Ashraf, Aqeel Javeed & Muhammad Furqan Akhtar

  2. Department of Microbiology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

    Aftab Ahmed Anjum

  3. Quality Operations Laboratory, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan

    Imran Altaf & Mateen Abbas

  4. Institute of Pharmacy, Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

    Bushra Akhtar

  5. Department of Pharmacy, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan

    Ammara Saleem

Authors
  1. Ali Sharif
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Muhammad Ashraf
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Aftab Ahmed Anjum
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Aqeel Javeed
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Imran Altaf
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Muhammad Furqan Akhtar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Mateen Abbas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Bushra Akhtar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Ammara Saleem
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ali Sharif.

Ethics declarations

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflict of interest

There is no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sharif, A., Ashraf, M., Anjum, A.A. et al. Pharmaceutical wastewater being composite mixture of environmental pollutants may be associated with mutagenicity and genotoxicity. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23, 2813–2820 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5478-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5478-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation