Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Investigating the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: the role of tourism and ecological footprint

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The main objective of this study is to examine the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis by utilizing the ecological footprint as an environment indicator and GDP from tourism as the economic indicator. To achieve this goal, an environmental degradation model is established during the period of 1988–2008 for 144 countries. The results from the time series generalized method of moments (GMM) and the system panel GMM revealed that the number of countries that have a negative relationship between the ecological footprint and its determinants (GDP growth from tourism, energy consumption, trade openness, and urbanization) is more existent in the upper middle- and high-income countries. Moreover, the EKC hypothesis is more present in the upper middle- and high-income countries than the other income countries. From the outcome of this research, a number of policy recommendations were provided for the investigated countries.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups

References

  • Akinboade OA (2010) International tourism and economic development in South Africa: a Granger causality test. Int J Tourism Res 12:149–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-mulali U, Fereidouni HG, Lee JY, Mohammed AB (2013) Estimating the tourism-led growth hypothesis: a case study of the Middle East countries. Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 25:290–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Mulali U, Tang C.F, Ozturk I (2015) Does financial development reduce environmental degradation? Evidence from a panel study of 129 countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, forthcoming. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-015-4726-x

  • Arellano M, Bover O (1995) Another look at the instrumental variable estimation of error-components models. J Econ 68:29–51

  • Apergis N, Payne JE (2010) The emissions, energy consumption, and growth nexus: evidence from the commonwealth of independent states. Energy Policy 38:650–655

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belloumi M (2010) The relationship between tourism receipts, real effective exchange rate and economic growth in Tunisia. Int J Tourism Res 12:550–560

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben Jebli M, Ben Youssef S (2015) Economic growth, combustible renewables and waste consumption, and CO2 emissions in North Africa. Environ Sci Pollut Res. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-4792-0.

  • Blake A, Arbache JS, Sinclair MT, Teles V (2008) Tourism and poverty relief. Ann Tourism Res 35:107–126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blundell R, Bond S (1998) Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models. J Econ 87:115–143

  • Brida JG, Risso WA (2010) Tourism as a determinant of long-run economic growth. J Policy Res Tour Leis Events 2:14–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chou MC (2013) Does tourism development promote economic growth in transition countries? A panel data analysis. Econ Model 33:226–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole MA, Rayner AJ, Bates JM (1997) The environmental Kuznets curve: an empirical analysis. Environ Dev Econ 2:401–416

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Bruyn SM, van den Bergh JCJM, Opschoor JB (1998) Economic growth and emissions: reconsidering the empirical basis of environmental Kuznets curves. Ecol Econ 25:161–175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dubois G, Peeters P, Ceron JP, Gössling S (2011) The future tourism mobility of the world population: emission growth versus climate policy. Transp Res Part A 45:1031–1042

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunning JH, Kundu SK (1995) The internationalization of the hotel industry. Manag Int Rev 35:101–103

    Google Scholar 

  • Egli H (2004) The environmental Kuznets curve-evidence from time series data for Germany. Working Paper Series 04–33, Institute of Economic Research, Zurich

  • Energy Information Administration (2013). International Energy Statistics. Washington, DC, Available from: http://www.eia.gov/countries/data.cfm.

  • Euromonitor International (2013). Global Market Information Database (GMID) [online]. [Acessed on July 19th, 2013] fromhttp://www.euromonitor.com/.

  • Farhani S, Ozturk I (2015) Causal relationship between CO2 emissions, real GDP, energy consumption, financial development, trade openness and urbanization in Tunisia. Environ Sci Pollut Res. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-4767-1.

  • Fischer C (2004) The influence of immigration and international tourism on the demand for imported food products. Food Economics-Acta Agric Scand Sect C 1:21–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Fodha M, Zaghdoud O (2010) Economic growth and pollutant emissions in Tunisia: an empirical analysis of the environmental Kuznets curve. Energ Pol 38:1150–1156

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friedl B, Getzner M (2003) Determinants of CO2 emissions in a small open economy. Ecol Econ 45:133–148

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Global Footprint Network (2013a) Ecological footprint. Oakland, USA; [Online] [Accessed on 20th September 2013] Available from: http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/.

  • Global Economic Monitor Commodities (2013b). Global economic monitor (GEM) commodities. Washington, DC; Available from: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=Global-Economic-Monitor-(GEM)-Commodities

  • Gholipour HF, Masron TA (2011) The effect of tourism agglomeration on foreign real estate investment. Int J Strateg Prop Manag 15:222–230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gholipour HF, Al-mulali U (2014) The interaction between tourism and FDI in real estate in OECD countries. Curr Issues Tour 17(2):105–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh S (2010) Examining carbon emissions-economic growth nexus for India: a multivariate cointegration approach. Energ Pol 38:2613–3130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gössling S (2002) Global environmental consequences of tourism. Glob Environ Chang 12:283–302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gössling S (2013) National emissions from tourism: an over looked policy challenge? Energ Pol 59:433–442

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayashi F (2000) Econometrics. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • He J, Richard P (2010) Environmental Kuznets curves for CO2 in Canada. Ecol Econ 69:1083–1093

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holden A (2009) The environment-tourism nexus influence of market ethics. Ann Tourism Res 36:373–389

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holtz-Eakin D, Selden TM (1995) Stoking the fires? CO2 emissions and economic growth. J Public Econ 57:85–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holzner M (2011) Tourism and economic development: the beach disease? Tour Manag 32:922–933

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hossain S (2011) Panel estimation for CO2 emissions, energy consumption, economic growth, trade openness and urbanization of newly industrialized countries. Energ Pol 39:6991–6999

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hye QMA, Khan REA (2013) Tourism-led growth hypothesis: a case study of Pakistan. Asia Pac J Tour Res 18:303–313

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iwata H, Okada K, Samreth S (2010) Empirical study on the environmental Kuznets curve for CO2 in France: the role of nuclear energy. Energ Pol 38:4057–4063

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jalil A, Mahmud SF (2009) Environment Kuznets curve for CO2 emissions: a cointegration analysis. Energ Pol 37:5167–5172

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jalil A, Mahmood T, Idrees M (2013) Tourism–growth nexus in Pakistan: evidence from ARDL bounds tests. Econ Model 35:185–191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan H, Toh RS, Chua L (2005) Tourism and trade: cointegration and Granger causality tests. J Travel Res 44:171–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim HJ, Chen MH, Jang S (2006) Tourism expansion and economic development: the case of Taiwan. Tour Manag 27:925–933

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kulendran N, Wilson K (2000) Is there a relationship between international trade and international travel? Appl Econ 32:1001–1009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lean HH, Tang CF (2010) Is the tourism-led growth hypothesis stable for Malaysia? A note. Int J Tourism Res 12:375–378

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lean HH, Smyth R (2010) CO2 emissions, electricity consumption and output in ASEAN. Appl Energy 87:1858–1864

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee JW, Brahmasrene T (2013) Investigating the influence of tourism on economic growth and carbon emissions: evidence from panel analysis of the European Union. Tour Manag 38:69–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee CC, Chang CP (2008) Tourism development and economic growth: a closer look at panels. Tour Manag 29:180–192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindmark M (2002) An EKC-pattern in historical perspective: carbon dioxide emissions, technology, fuel prices and growth in Sweden 1870–1997. Ecol Econ 42:333–347

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menyah K, Wolde-Rufael Y (2010) Energy consumption, pollutant emissions and economic growth in South Africa. Energy Econ 32:1374–1382

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muchapondwa E, Stage J (2013) The economic impacts of tourism in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa: is poverty subsiding? Nat Res Forum 37:80–89

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nasir M, Rehman FU (2011) Environmental Kuznets curve for carbon emissions in Pakistan: an empirical investigation. Energ Pol 39:1857–1864

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neto F (2003) A new approach to sustainable tourism development: moving beyond environmental protection. Nat Res Forum 27:212–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozturk I, Acaravci A (2010) CO2 emissions, energy consumption and economic growth in Turkey. Renew Sust Energ Rev 14:3220–3225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozturk I, Uddin GS (2012) Causality among carbon emissions, energy consumption and growth in India. Econ Res 25(3):752–775

    Google Scholar 

  • Ozturk I, Al-Mulali U (2015) Investigating the validity of the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in Cambodia. Ecol Indic 57:324–330

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ozturk I (2015). Measuring the impact of energy consumption and air quality indicators on climate change: evidence from the panel of UNFCC classified countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-015-4757-3

  • Paci R, Marrocu E (2013) Tourism and regional growth in Europe. Pap Reg Sci 93(S1):S25–S50

    Google Scholar 

  • Pao HT, Tsai CM (2010) CO2 emissions, energy consumption and economic growth in BRIC countries. Energ Pol 38:7850–7860

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perch-Nielsen S, Sesartic A, Stucki M (2010) The greenhouse gas intensity of the tourism sector: the case of Switzerland. Environ Sci Pol 13:131–140

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts JT, Grimes PK (1997) Carbon intensity and economic development 1962–1991: a brief exploration of the environmental Kuznets curve. World Dev 25:191–198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roca J (2003) Do individual preferences explain environmental Kuznets curve? Ecol Econ 45:3–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roca J, Padilla E, Farré M, Galletto V (2001) Economic growth and atmospheric pollution in Spain: discussing the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis. Ecol Econ 39:85–99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saboori B, Sulaiman J, Saidatulakmal M (2012) Economic growth and CO2 emissions in Malaysia: a cointegration analysis of the Environmental Kuznets Curve. Energ Pol 51:184–191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saboori B, Sulaiman J (2013) Environmental degradation, economic growth and energy consumption: evidence of the environmental Kuznets curve in Malaysia. Energ Pol 60:892–905

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saenz-de-Miera O, Rosselló J (2014) Modeling tourism impacts on air pollution: the case study of PM10 in Mallorca. Tour Manag 40:273–281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanford DM, Dong H (2000) Investment in familiar territory: tourism and new foreign direct investment. Tour Econ 6:205–219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santana-Gallego M, Ledesma-Rodriguez F, Perez-Rodrıguez JV (2011) Tourism and trade in OECD countries. A dynamic heterogeneous panel data analysis. Empir Econ 41:533–554

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sargan J (1988) Testing for misspecification after estimation using instrumental variables. In: Maasoumi E (ed) Contributions to econometrics: John Denis Sargan, vol 1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Sari R, Soytas U (2009) Are global warming and economic growth combatable? Evidence from five OPEC countries. Appl Energy 86:1887–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shafik N, Bandyopadhyay S (1992) Economic growth and environmental quality: time series and cross-country evidence. Background Paper for the World Development Report. The World Bank, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Shahbaz M, Lean H, Shabbir MS (2012) Environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in Pakistan: cointegration and Granger causality. Renew Sust Energ Rev 16:2947–2953

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shahbaz M, Khraief N, Uddin GS, Ozturk I (2014) Environmental Kuznets curve in an open economy: a bounds testing and causality analysis for Tunisia. Renew Sust Energ Rev 34:325–336

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shan J, Wilson K (2001) Causality between trade and tourism: empirical evidence from China. Appl Econ Lett 8:279–83

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stern DI, Common MS (2001) Is there an environmental Kuznets curve for sulfur? J Environ Econ Manag 41:162–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stern DI, Common MS, Barbier EB (1996) Economic growth and environmental degradation: a critique of the environmental Kuznets curve. World Dev 24:1151–1160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suri V, Chapman D (1998) Economic growth, trade and the environment: implications for the environmental Kuznets curve. Ecol Econ 25:195–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tang S, Selvanathan EA, Selvanathan S (2007) The relationship between foreign direct investment and tourism: empirical evidence from China. Tour Econ 13:25–39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tang CF (2011) Is the tourism-led growth hypothesis valid for Malaysia? A view from disaggregated tourism markets. Int J Tourism Res 13:97–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tang CF, Abosedra S (2014) Small sample evidence on the tourism-led growth hypothesis in Lebanon. Curr Issues Tour 17:234–246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tang CF, Tang EC (2013) How stable is the tourism-led growth hypothesis in Malaysia? Evidence from disaggregated tourism markets. Tour Manag 37:52–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torras M, Boyce JK (1998) Income, inequality, and pollution: a reassessment of the environmental Kuznets curve. Ecol Econ 25:147–160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas F (2013) Addressing the measurement of tourism in terms of poverty reduction: tourism value chain analysis in Lao PDR and Mali. Int J Tourism Res 16(4):368–376

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai KT, Lin TB, Hwang RL, Huang YJ (2014) Carbon dioxide emissions generated by energy consumption of hotels and homestay facilities in Taiwan. Tour Manag 42:13–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vita GD, Katircioglu S, Altinay L, Fethi S, Mercan M, (2015) Revisiting the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in a tourism development context. Environ Sci Pollut Res. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-4861-4.

  • World Travel and Tourism Council (2013) Economic Impact Research, [online]. [Accessed on July 19th, 2014] http://www.wttc.org/research/.

Download references

Compliance with ethical standards

Ethical statement

The manuscript has not been previously published, is not currently submitted for review to any other journal, and will not be submitted elsewhere before a decision is made by this journal.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Cag University, Mersin, 33800, Turkey

    Ilhan Ozturk

  2. Faculty of Business, Multimedia University, Melaka, 75450, Malaysia

    Usama Al-Mulali

  3. Centre of Real Estate Studies, Department of Real Estate, Faculty of Geoinformation & Real Estate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, 81310, Malaysia

    Behnaz Saboori

Authors
  1. Ilhan Ozturk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Usama Al-Mulali
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Behnaz Saboori
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ilhan Ozturk.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ozturk, I., Al-Mulali, U. & Saboori, B. Investigating the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: the role of tourism and ecological footprint. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23, 1916–1928 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5447-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5447-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation