Abstract
Reduction of membrane fouling in reverse osmosis systems and elimination of scaling of heat transfer surfaces in thermal plants are a major challenge in the desalination of seawater. Precipitation softening has the potential of eliminating the major fouling and scaling species in seawater desalination plants, thus allowing thermal plants to operate at higher top brine temperatures and membrane plants to operate at a reduced risk of fouling, leading to lower desalinated water costs. This work evaluated the use of precipitation softening as a pretreatment step for seawater desalination. The effectiveness of the process in removing several scale-inducing materials such as calcium, magnesium, silica, and boron was investigated under variable conditions of temperature and pH. The treatment process was also applied to seawater spiked with other known fouling species such as iron and bacteria to determine the efficiency of removal. The results of this work show that precipitation softening at a pH of 11 leads to complete elimination of calcium, silica, and bacteria; to very high removal efficiencies of magnesium and iron (99.6 and 99.2 %, respectively); and to a reasonably good removal efficiency of boron (61 %).
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Al-Rawajfeh AE (2012) Hybrid salts precipitation–nanofiltration pretreatment of MSF and RO seawater desalination feed. Membr Water Treat 3(4):253–266
Al-Rawajfeh AE, Al-Garalleh M, Al-Mazaideh G, Al-Rawashdeh B, Khalil S (2008) Understanding CaCO3–Mg(OH)2 scale formation: a semi-empirical MINDO-forces study of CO2–H2O system. Chem Eng Comm 195(8):998–1010
Al-Rawajfeh AE, Araj K (2013) Treatment of wastewater to meet the requirements for cooling water systems in Jordan’s nuclear plants. Chem Process Eng 34(2):253–267
Al-Rawajfeh AE, Fath HES, Mabrouk AA (2011) Integrated salts precipitation and nano-filtration as pretreatment of multistage flash desalination system. Heat Transfer Eng 33(3):272–279
Al-Rawajfeh AE, Zarooni M (2008) New processes in seawater desalination. Recent Patents Chem Eng 1(2):141–150
Al-Sofi MA-K (1999) Fouling phenomena in multi stage flash (MSF) distillers. Desalination 126(1–3):61–76
Antony A, Low JH, Gray S, Childress AE, Le-Clech P, Leslie G (2011) Scale formation and control in high pressure membrane water treatment systems: a review. J Membr Sci 383(1–2):1–16
APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 22nd edn. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC
Ayoub GM, Koopman B (1986) Algal separation by the lime–seawater process. J Water Pollut Control Fed 58(9):924–931
Ayoub GM, Lee SI, Koopman B (1986) Seawater induced algal flocculation. Water Res 20(10):1265–1271
Ayoub GM, Lee SI, Mazidji CN, Seo IS, Cho HM, Koopman B (1992) Seawater flocculation of emulsified oil and alkaline wastewaters. Water Res 26(6):817–823
Bonnélye V, Sanz MA, Francisci L, Beltran F, Cremer G, Colcuera R, Laraudogoitia J (2007) Curacao, Netherlands Antilles: a successful example of boron removal on a seawater desalination plant. Desalination 205(1–3):200–205
Brehant A, Bonnelye V, Perez M (2002) Comparison of MF/UF pretreatment with conventional filtration prior to RO membranes for surface seawater desalination. Desalination 144:353–360
Brehant A, Bonnelye V, Perez M (2003) Assessment of ultrafiltration as a pretreatment of reverse osmosis membranes for surface seawater desalination. Water Sci Technol Water Supply 3(5–6):437–445
Choi YH, Kweon JH, Kim DI, Lee S (2009) Evaluation of various pretreatment for particle and inorganic fouling control on performance of SWRO. Desalination 247(1–3):137–147
Comstock SEH, Boyer TH, Graf KC (2011) Treatment of nanofiltration and reverse osmosis concentrates: comparison of precipitative softening, coagulation, and anion exchange. Water Res 45(16):4855–4865
Dalvi AGI, Al-Rasheed R, Javeed MA (2000) Studies on organic foulants in the seawater feed of reverse osmosis plants of SWCC. Desalination 132(1–3):217–232
De Maio A, Zannoni R, Ronzoni A, Boari G, Liberti L, Santori M (1983) Results of four years of operation at high temperature (150°C) of BARI’s desalination plant. Desalination 45(2):197–207
El-Manharawy S, Hafez A (2003) Study of seawater alkalization as a promising RO pretreatment method. Desalination 153(1–3):109–120
Fernandez-Álvarez G, Garralón G, Plaza F, Garralón A, Pérez J, Gómez MA (2010) Autopsy of SWRO membranes from desalination plant in Ceuta after 80 years in operation. Desalination 263(1–3):264–270
Gabelich CJ, Rahardianto A, Northrup CR, Yun TI, Cohen Y (2011) Process evaluation of intermediate chemical demineralization for water recovery enhancement in production-scale brackish water desalting. Desalination 272(1–3):36–45
Gilron J, Chaikin D, Daltrophe N (2000) Demonstration of CAPS pretreatment of surface water for RO. Desalination 127(3):271–282
Greenlee LF, Lawler DF, Freeman BD, Marrot B, Moulin P (2009) Reverse osmosis desalination: water sources, technology, and today’s challenges. Water Res 43(9):2317–2348. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2009.03.010
Hassan AM, Al-Sofi MAK, Al-Amoudi AS, Jamaluddin ATM, Farooque AM, Rowaili A, Dalvi AGI, Kither NM, Mustafa GM, Al-Tisan IAR (1998) A new approach to membrane and thermal seawater desalination processes using nanofiltration membranes (part 1). Desalination 118(1–3):35–51
Hussain MA (2007) Process for pre-treating and desalinating seawater. US Patent 7,198,722
Irving L (1926) The precipitation of calcium and magnesium from seawater. J Mar Biol Assoc 14:441–446
Isaias NP (2001) Experience in reverse osmosis pretreatment. Desalination 139(1–3):57–64
Koseoglu H, Kabay N, Yüksel M, Kitis M (2008a) The removal of boron from model solutions and seawater using reverse osmosis membranes. Desalination 223(1–3):126–133. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.189
Koseoglu H, Kabay N, Yüksel M, Sarp S, Arar Ö, Kitis M (2008b) Boron removal from seawater using high rejection SWRO membranes—impact of pH, feed concentration, pressure, and cross-flow velocity. Desalination 227(1–3):253–263
Lechevallier M, Cawthon C, Lee R (1988) Inactivation of biofilm bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 54:2492–2499
Matin A, Khan Z, Zaidi SMJ, Boyce MC (2011) Biofouling in reverse osmosis membranes for seawater desalination: phenomena and prevention. Desalination 281:1–16. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2011.06.063
Mavis JD, Checkovich A (1975) Sea Water Softening with the Lime-Magnesium Carbonate (LMC) Process Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Process Design and Development 14 (3):204–209
Melián-Martel N, Sadhwani JJ, Malamis S, Ochsenkühn-Petropoulou M (2012) Structural and chemical characterization of long-term reverse osmosis membrane fouling in a full scale desalination plant. Desalination 305:44–53
Mohammadesmaeili F, Badr MK, Abbaszadegan M, Fox P (2010) Mineral recovery from inland reverse osmosis concentrate using isothermal evaporation. Water Res 44(20):6021–6030
Morse JW, Arvidson RS, Luttge A (2007) Calcium carbonate formation and dissolution. Chem Rev 107:342–381
Nadav N, Priel M, Glueckstern P (2005) Boron removal from the permeate of a large SWRO plant in Eilat. Desalination 185(1–3):121–129
Parks J, Edwards M (2007) Boron removal via formation of magnesium silicate solids during precipitative softening. J Environ Eng 133(2):149–156
Pearce GK (2008) UF/MF pre-treatment to RO in seawater and wastewater reuse applications: a comparison of energy costs. Desalination 222(1–3):66–73
Rahardianto A, Gao J, Gabelich CJ, Williams MD, Cohen Y (2007) High recovery membrane desalting of low-salinity brackish water: integration of accelerated precipitation softening with membrane RO. J Membr Sci 289(1–2):123–137
Rahardianto A, McCool BC, Cohen Y (2010) Accelerated desupersaturation of reverse osmosis concentrate by chemically-enhanced seeded precipitation. Desalination 264(3):256–267
Rincón A-G, Pulgarin C (2004) Effect of pH, inorganic ions, organic matter and H2O2 on E. coli K12 photocatalytic inactivation by TiO2: implications in solar water disinfection. Appl Catal B Environ 51(4):283–302
Sanciolo P, Ostarcevic E, Atherton P, Leslie G, Fane T, Cohen Y, Payne M, Gray S (2012) Enhancement of reverse osmosis water recovery using interstage calcium precipitation. Desalination 295:43–52
Shams El Din AM, El-Dahshan ME, Mohammed RA (2005) Scale formation in flash chambers of high-temperature MSF distillers. Desalination 177(1–3):241–258
Sheikholeslami R (2011) Composite scale formation and assessment by the theoretical Scaling Potential Index (SPI) proposed previously for a single salt. Desalination 278(1–3):259–267
Sheikholeslami R, Al-Mutaz IS, Koo T, Young A (2001) Pretreatment and the effect of cations and anions on prevention of silica fouling. Desalination 139(1–3):83–95
Subramani A, Cryer E, Liu L, Lehman S, Ning RY, Jacangelo JG (2012) Impact of intermediate concentrate softening on feed water recovery of reverse osmosis process during treatment of mining contaminated groundwater. Sep Purif Technol 88:138–145
Valavala R, Sohn J-S, Han J-H, Her N-G, Yoon Y-M (2011) Pretreatment in reverse osmosis seawater desalination: a short review. Environ Eng Res 16(4):205–212. doi:10.4491/eer.2011.16.4.205
Vedavyasan CV (2007) Pretreatment trends—an overview. Desalination 203:296–299
Wildebrand C, Glade H, Will S, Essig M, Rieger J, Büchner K-H, Brodt G (2007) Effects of process parameters and anti-scalants on scale formation in horizontal tube falling film evaporators. Desalination 204(1–3):448–463
Zebger I, Goikoetxea AB, Jensen S, Ogilby PR (2003) Degradation of vinyl polymer films upon exposure to chlorinated water: the pronounced effect of a sample’s thermal history. Polym Degrad Stab 80(2):293–304
Acknowledgment
The authors acknowledge the Environmental Engineering Research Center at the American University of Beirut for providing their facilities to conduct the research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
ESM 1
(DOCX 2659 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ayoub, G.M., Zayyat, R.M. & Al-Hindi, M. Precipitation softening: a pretreatment process for seawater desalination. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21, 2876–2887 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2237-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2237-1