Abstract
Purpose
Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers (α-, β- and γ- (Lindane)) were recently included as new persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the Stockholm Convention, and therefore, the legacy of HCH and Lindane production became a contemporary topic of global relevance. This article wants to briefly summarise the outcomes of the Stockholm Convention process and make an estimation of the amount of HCH waste generated and dumped in the former Lindane/HCH-producing countries.
Results
In a preliminary assessment, the countries and the respective amount of HCH residues stored and deposited from Lindane production are estimated. Between 4 and 7 million tonnes of wastes of toxic, persistent and bioaccumulative residues (largely consisting of alpha- (approx. 80%) and beta-HCH) are estimated to have been produced and discarded around the globe during 60 years of Lindane production. For approximately 1.9 million tonnes, information is available regarding deposition. Countries are: Austria, Brazil, China, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Macedonia, Nigeria, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, The Netherlands, UK, USA, and former USSR. The paper highlights the environmental relevance of deposited HCH wastes and the related POPs’ contaminated sites and provides suggestions for further steps to address the challenge of the legacy of HCH/Lindane production.
Conclusion
It can be expected that most locations where HCH waste was discarded/stockpiled are not secured and that critical environmental impacts are resulting from leaching and volatilisation. As parties to the Stockholm Convention are legally required to take action to stop further POPs pollution, identification and evaluation of such sites are necessary.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6-Hexachlorocyclohexane is called “HCH” by the WHO. Another common name of hexachlorocyclohexane is “benzene hexachloride” with the abbreviation “BHC” by UN FAO and ISO, which is, however, incorrect according to the IUPAC rules.
The purified γ-HCH isomer was named ‘Lindane’ after the Belgian chemist Van Der Linden who discovered it in 1912 (Ulman 1972)
The term “Lindane” should be differentiated from γ–HCH in order to avoid confusion. γ–HCH is one of several isomers of HCH, and is contained in both technical HCH and Lindane. Lindane is the name given to 99% pure γ–HCH.
Currently, 172 countries are parties of the Stockholm Convention.
References
Abhilash PC, Singh N (2009a) Seasonal variation of HCH isomers in open soil and plant-rhizospheric soil system of a contaminated environment. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 16:727–740
Abhilash PC, Singh N (2009b) Withania somnifera Dunal-mediated dissipation of Lindane from simulated soil: implications for rhizoremediation of contaminated soils. J Soils Sediments 10:272–282
ACAT and PANNA (2008) Alaska Community Action on Toxics (ACAT) and Pesticide Action Network North America (PANNA). Annex F Submission for Lindane to the POPs Reviewing Committee
Africa Stockpiles Programme (2009) http://www.africastockpiles.org/pressroom.html
Amadori E (1993) The production and use of HCH, HCH and halogenated pesticides—state of the art for risk assessment and technology development, IWU – Tagungsberichte, 1993 Magdeburg, (See http://www.ihpa.info/library.htm 1st & 2nd Forum)
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (1998). Toxicological profile for alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-hexachlorocyclohexane. Draft for public comment (update). U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
ATSDR (2005) Toxicological profile for hexachlorocyclohexanes. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Public Health Service. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. August, 2005. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp43.html
Bao Z, Wang K, Kang J, Zhao L (1994) Analysis of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in pyrolysis residue of HCH. Environ Chem 13:409–414 (in Chinese)
Bidleman TF, Cotham WE, Addison RF, Zinck ME (1992) Organic contaminants in the Northwest Atlantic atmosphere at Sable Island, Nova Scotia, 1988–89. Chemosphere 24:1389–1412
Bodenstein G (1972) Disposal of wastes from Lindane manufacture. In: E. Uhlmann, Verlag K (eds) Lindane monograph of an insecticide. Schillinger, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany, pp 23–77
Braga AMCB, Krauss T, dos Santos CRR, de Souza PM (2002) PCDD/F-contamination in a hexachlorocyclohexane waste site in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Chemosphere 46:1329–1333
Breivik K, Pacyna JM, Munch J (1999) Use of α-, β-, γ- hexachlorocyclohexane in Europe, 1970–1996. Sci Total Environ 239:151–163
Breivik K, Sweetman A, Pacynaa JM, Jones K (2002) Towards a global historical emission inventory for selected PCB congeners—a mass balance approach 1. Global production and consumption. Sci Tot Environ 290:181–198
CAPE (Community Action for Pesticide Elimination) (2005) Lindane’s dirty secret: Indian facilities dump toxic waste May 2005 http://www.docstoc.com/docs/27574041/LINDANES-DIRTY-SECRET (Accessed 05/2010)
De Voogt P, Brinkman UAT (1989) Production, Properties and Usage. In: R.D. Kimbrough und A.A. Jensen (Hrsg.): Halogenated Biphenyls, Terphenyls, Naphthalenes, Dibenzodioxins and Related Products. Elsevier Science Publishers
Fiedler H (2001) Global and local disposition of PCB. In: Robertson LW, Hansen LG (eds) PCBs—recent advances in the environmental toxicology and health effects. University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, pp 11–15
Forter M (1995) Umweltnutzung durch die chemische Industrie am Fall Beispiel der HCH-Fabrik Ugine- Kuhlmann, Hüningen (France), Lizentiatsarbeit, 1995, Universität Basel, Schweiz
Fróes-Asmus CIR, Alonzo HGA, Palácios M, Silva AP, Filhote MIF, Buosi B, Câmara VM (2008) Assessment of human health risk from organochlorine pesticide residues in Cidade dos Meninos, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Cad. Saúde Publica Rio Janeiro 24(4):755–766
Goates BM (2006) An effective non-chemical treatment for head lice. Pediatrics 118(5):1962–1970
Hauzenberger I (2004) Reports on substances scheduled for re-assessments under the UNECE POPs Protocol, Technical Review Report on Lindane, Austria http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/TaskForce/popsxg/2004/Dossier_Lindane.pdf (Accessed 07.08.2010)
Heukelbach J, Feldmeier H (2006) Scabies. Lancet 367:1767–1774
India Pesticide Limited (2009) Dye intermediates http://www.indiapesticideslimited.com/dye.html (Accessed 01.05.2010)
IPEN International POPs Elimination Network (2005) Lindane. Answers to common questions http://www.ipen.org/ipenweb/documents/work%20documents/lindane%20answers_english.pdf (Accessed 05.09.2010)
IPEN International POPs Elimination Network (2009) Lindane: pharmaceutical and agricultural alternatives. http://www.akaction.org/REPORTS/Alternatives%20to%20Lindane%20Report%204-29-09.pdf (Accessed 01.05.2010)
International HCH and Pesticides Forum (2001) 6th Int. HCH and Pesticides Forum meeting, 20–22 March 2001, Forum Book, 31–32 CIEL., Verlag K.Schillinger, Freiburg im Breisgau. http://www.ihpa.info/docs/library/libraryPPI.php
International HCH and Pesticide Association (2009) Abstracts submitted to the International HCH and Pesticide Forums: http://www.ihpa.info/resources/library/
Jit S, Dadhwal M, Kumari H, Jindal S, Kaur J, Lata P, Niharika N, Lal D, Garg N, Kumar Gupta S, Sharma P, Bala K, Singh A, Vijgen J, Weber R, Lal R (2010) Evaluation of hexachlorocyclohexane contamination from the last Lindane production plant operating in India. Env Sci Pollut Res (in press)
Jürgens H-J, Roth R (1989) Case study and proposed decontamination steps of the soil and groundwater beneath a closed herbicide plant in Germany. Chemosphere 18:1163–1169
Krum W (1982) Lindan- ja, HCH –nein, Lindan-Workshop, Hannover, Germany 1982; K. Schillinger, C.I.E.L.-Redaktion (Freiburg i. Br/Germany)
Li Y-F (1999) Global technical hexachlorocyclohexane usage and its contamination consequences in the environment: from 1948 to 1997. Sci Total Environ 232(3):121–158
Li Y-F, Cai DJ, Shan ZJ, Zhu ZL (2001) Gridded Usage Inventories of Technical Hexachlorocyclohexane and Lindane for China with 1/6° Latitude by 1/4° Longitude Resolution. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 41, 261–266
Li Y-F, Trevorscholtz M, Van Heyst BJ (2003) Global gridded emission inventories of beta-hexachlorocyclohexane. Environ Sci Technol 37:3493–3498
Li Y-F, MacDonald R (2005) Sources and pathways of selected organochlorine pesticides to the Arctic and the effect of pathway divergence on HCH trends in biota: a review. Sci Total Environ 342:87–106
Otto W, Schönberger H, Burger D, Weber R (2006) Case study on remediation of a German city contaminated by a chloralkali plant and PCP production. Organohalogen Compd. 68, 880–885
Pearlman D (2005) Cetaphil cleanser cures head lice. Pediatrics 116(6):1612–1613
Peking University (2005) College of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, P.R. China, Report on China—Joint project to promote the reduction of Lindane emissions in China (Phase 1), November 2005
Ren N (2006) China—Canada joint project on reduction of Lindane usage in China and its impact globally and on North America. April 2006
Rippen G (ed) (1996) Handbuch Umweltchemikalien (laufend aktualisierte Ausgabe). Ecomed, Landsberg am Lech
Romania (2008) Annual report 2008 to EU Commission on POPs (English), 16 June 2009
Sievers S, Friesel P (1989) Soil contamination patterns of chlorinated organic compounds: looking for the source. Chemosphere 19:691–698
Stockholm Convention (2001) Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants; http://chm.pops.int/. http://chm.pops.int/Convention/tabid/54/language/en-US/Default.aspx#convtext
Torres JPM, Fróes-Asmus CIR, Weber R, Vijgen JMH (2010) HCH/DDT contamination around former organochlorine productions in Brazil and preliminary human risk assessment. Organohalogen compounds 72 http://www.xcdtech.com/dioxin2010/pdf/1304.pdf
Treger YA (2004) Data on production of HCH in the former USSR. FSUE Research Institute “Sintez”, Moscow, 12 October 2004
Ulman E (1972) Lindane, monograph of an insecticide. Verlag K Schillinger, Friebur im Breisgau
UNEP (2005a) Consideration of chemicals proposed for inclusion in Annexes A, B and C of the Convention: Lindane. Lindane proposal. UNEP/POPS/POPRC.1/8. 24 August 2005
UNEP (2005b) Decision POPRC-1/6: Lindane. UNEP/POPS/POPRC.1/10. November 2005
UNEP (2006a) Consideration of chemicals newly proposed for inclusion in Annexes A, B or C of the Convention: Alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane. UNEP/POPS/POPRC.2/15. 7. August 2006; The POP Reviewing Committee texts can be downloaded at the following website http://chm.pops.int/Convention/POPsReviewCommittee/Chemicals/tabid/781/language/en-US/Default.aspx
UNEP (2006b) Consideration of chemicals newly proposed for inclusion in Annexes A, B or C of the Convention: Beta-hexachlorocyclohexane. UNEP/POPS/POPRC.2/16. 7. August 200612
UNEP (2006c) Decision POPRC-2/9: Alpha hexachlorocyclohexane. November 200612
UNEP (2006d) Decision POPRC-2/10: Beta hexachlorocyclohexane. November 200612
UNEP (2006e) Report of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee on the work of its second meeting Risk profile on Lindane UNEP/POPS/POPRC.2/17/Add.4. 21. November 200612
UNEP (2007a) Report of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee on the work of its third meeting. Risk management evaluation on Lindane. 4. December 200712
UNEP (2007b) Report of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee on the work of its third meeting. Risk profile on beta hexachlorocyclohexane. UNEP/POPS/POPRC.3/20/Add.9. 04. December 200712
UNEP (2008a) Report of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee on the work of its third meeting. Risk profile on alpha hexachlorocyclohexane. UNEP/POPS/POPRC.3/20/Add.8. 18. January 200812
UNEP (2008b) Report of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee on the work of its third meeting. Risk management evaluation for alpha hexachlorocyclohexane. UNEP/POPS/POPRC.4/15/Add.3. 30. October 200812
UNEP (2008c) Report of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee on the work of its third meeting. Risk management evaluation for beta hexachlorocyclohexane. UNEP/POPS/POPRC.4/15/Add.4. 30. October 200812
UNEP (2009a) Report of the Conference of the Parties of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants on the work of its fourth meeting. UNEP/POPS/COP.4/38. 8 May 2009; http://chm.pops.int/Programmes/NewPOPs/DecisionsRecommendations/tabid/671/language/en-US/Default.aspx
UNEP (2009b) SC-4/10: Listing of alpha hexachlorocyclohexane. UNEP/POPS/COP.4/SC-4/10. May 200913
UNEP (2009c) SC-4/11: Listing of beta hexachlorocyclohexane. UNEP/POPS/COP.4/SC-4/11. May 200913
UNEP (2009d) SC-4/15: Listing of Lindane. UNEP/POPS/COP.4/SC-4/15. May 200913
Universität Bayreuth, Tritschler & Partner GmbH (1995) Dioxin-Bilanz für Hamburg, p. 21, http://www.hamburg.de/contentblob/112354/data/dioxinbilanz.pdf
US EPA (2003) Five-year review fact sheet, Geigy Chemical Corp. Site, Aberdeen, Moore County, North Carolina, Oct. 2003
Varbelow G, Weber R (2009) Remediation and securing activities at a former 2,4,5-T and HCH production site in Germany. Presentation at the 10th International HCH and Pesticide Forum, 07–10 September 2009, Brno, Czech Republic http://www.hchforum.com/10th/presentations/pdf/06-01_Varbelow_Weber.pdf
Vijgen J (2006a) The legacy of lindane HCH isomer production. Main report. IHPA, Holte, January 2006 http://ew.eea.europa.eu/Agriculture/Agreports/obsolete_pesticides/lindane_production.pdf
Vijgen J (2006b) The legacy of Lindane HCH isomer production. Annexes. IHPA, Holte, January 2006 http://ew.eea.europa.eu/Agriculture/Agreports/obsolete_pesticides/lindane_annexes.pdf (Accessed 01.05.2010)
Vijgen J, Li YF, Martin F, Lal R, Weber R (2006) The legacy of Lindane and technical HCH production. Organohal Compd 68:899–904
Walker K, Vallero DA, Lewis RG (1999) Factors influencing the distribution of Lindane and other hexachlorocyclohexanes in the environment. Environ Sci Technol 33:4373–4378
Ware GW (1999) An introduction to insecticides, 3rd edn. Department of Entomology, University of Arizona, Tucson
Watson A, Forter M, Lal R, Jopkova M, Torres J, Li Y, Weber R, Vijgen J (2009) Global mapping of former HCH production sites and their waste dumps. Presentation at the 10th International HCH and Pesticide Forum, 07–10 September 2009, Brno, Czech Republic http://www.hchforum.com/10th/presentations/pdf/01-06_Weber%20et%20al.pdf
Weber R, Behnisch PA, Brouwer A, van Bavel B, Lindstroem G, Zennegg M, Schilling B, Paepke O (2006) Contemporary relevance of dioxin and dioxin-like compound contaminations in residues from recycling of HCH waste. Organohalogen Comp 68:905–910
Weber R (2007) Relevance of PCDD/PCDF Formation for the Evaluation of POPs Destruction Technologies - Review on Current Status and Assessment Gaps. Chemosphere 67:109–117
Weber R, Gaus C, Tysklind M, Johnston P, Forter M, Hollert H, Heinisch H, Holoubek I, Lloyd-Smith M, Masunaga S, Moccarelli P, Santillo D, Seike N, Symons R, Torres JPM, Verta M, Varbelow G, Vijgen J, Watson A, Costner P, Woelz J, Wycisk P, Zennegg M (2008a) Dioxin- and POP-contaminated sites—contemporary and future relevance and challenges. Env Sci Pollut Res 15:363–393
Weber R, Tysklind M, Gaus C (2008b) Dioxin—contemporary and future challenges of historical legacies (editorial). Env Sci Pollut Res 15:96–112
WHO (1991) Environmental program on chemical safety. Environmental health criteria.124, Lindane, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc124.htm
Weber R, Watson A, Forter M, Oliaei F (2010) POPs in landfills—persistent organic pollutants and landfills—a review of past experiences and future challenges. Waste Management & Research (in press)
Willet KL, Utrich EM, Hites RA (1998) Differential toxicity and environmental facts of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers. Environ Sci Technol 32:2197–2207
Wycisk P, Stollberg R, Neumann C, Gossel W, Weber R, Weiss H (2010) Methodology for exposure route assessment of HCH groundwater pollution from multi-source contaminated mega sites—a case study. Env Sci Pollut Res (submitted).
Zheng M, Liu P, Bad Z, Xu X (1999) Aspects of formation and degradation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans. Chinese Science Bulletin 44:1249–1257, http://www.springerlink.com/content/l342q683084l1n96/fulltext.pdf (Accessed 04.2010)
Acknowledgements
The authors want to express their thanks to all who answered the questionnaires and supported the study with information.
P.C. Abhilash and Nandita Singh are thankful to the Director of NBRI for his encouragements.
Thanks go to Eurofins ERGO for the analysis of a HCH decomposer residue.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible editor: Ake Bergman
This article belongs to the series “Dioxin and POP Contaminated Sites” edited by Roland Weber, Mats Tysklind and Caroline Gaus.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Vijgen, J., Abhilash, P.C., Li, Y.F. et al. Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) as new Stockholm Convention POPs—a global perspective on the management of Lindane and its waste isomers. Environ Sci Pollut Res 18, 152–162 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-010-0417-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-010-0417-9