Abstract
Purpose
To test whether exposure to news images depicting law enforcement affects public attitudes toward the police.
Method
Participants drawn from a national online panel were randomly assigned to view one of three pictures that depicted a range of hostile to friendly police-civilian interactions (compared to a control group who saw no pictures). Dependent variables were perceptions of police officers’ effectiveness, misconduct, and bias. Moderating variables were respondents’ experiential, ideological, or demographic characteristics. As a follow-up to the results of the experiment, regression analyses were employed to explore other factors that may influence perceptions of police or interact with the media effects.
Results
Image exposure did not directly affect any dimension of attitudes toward the police, but there was one significant moderation effect. Respondents who had been recently stopped by an officer and saw a picture of a friendly interaction between officers and a civilian perceived more frequent police misconduct than respondents in the same experimental condition who were not recently stopped. Routine media consumption was significantly related to perceptions of police in the non-experimental analysis.
Conclusions
Findings indicate that brief exposure to static images of law enforcement disseminated by the media does not independently affect people’s opinions about the performance of police in society. Rather, people’s global opinions about the police are shaped by their own beliefs, prior experiences with officers, and cumulative, self-selected media consumption.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Some of the studies that we review here are framed as examinations of procedural justice rather than media effects. We consider laboratory- or survey-based experimental studies whose treatment stimuli were either videos or pictures of police-civilian interactions to be sufficiently comparable and pertinent to warrant comparison to self-identified studies of media effects. We do not consider studies of procedural justice that employed field experiments in which the behavior of police officers was manipulated in the context of in-person interactions with civilians (for a review of pertinent studies, see Johnson et al. 2017).
In reality, of course, “community policing” is an umbrella term that is used to refer to a wide variety of quite disparate policies and practices (many of which do not involve positive interactions between police and citizens). Our intent was not to capture response to community policing broadly but rather response to one idealized and abstract image of a seemingly positive interaction between a police officer and a citizen, given how few prior studies have shown people depictions of officers acting in a friendly or helpful manner.
The treatment images may be viewed on the following websites, which are the sources from which we copied the pictures: militarized policing (Topaz 2014), community policing (Mirko 2013), and stop and frisk (Post Editorial Board 2015). The original stop and frisk image depicted an officer training exercise, and the officers were carrying bright blue model side arms. We digitally altered the picture in order to color the handgun hilts black so that they would look like regular guns, thereby depicting a typical stop and frisk.
The full factorial ANOVA results are available upon request.
This null result is not for lack of racial diversity in stops. Twenty percent of white respondents, 13% of black respondents, 19% of Hispanic respondents, and 8% of Asian respondents reported being stopped within the previous 12 months.
We did ask four follow-up questions to measures respondents’ perception of the presence or absence of procedurally-just behavior on the part of the officer(s) who stopped them. However, while 169 respondents reported being stopped within the past 12 months, unfortunately only eight of those respondents answered the follow-up questions, giving us too little data to use these measures. We suspect an implementation flaw; we programmed a skip function into the survey so that only respondents who reported being stopped would be asked the follow-up questions, but it looks like only a handful of respondents were presented with those items.
A number of the coefficients generated p values between 0.051 and 0.059, just above the commonly accepted threshold of p ≤ 0.05. We report these effects as marginally significant. We employed robust standard errors because a Breusch-Pagan test indicated that four of the five models demonstrated heteroscedasticity. We also estimated variance inflation factor (VIF) scores to test for the presence of multicollinearity; no variable in any model generated a VIF greater than 2.42, which falls below the standard thresholds of concern for multicollinearity (Fox 1991).
The study was fielded just before the wave of protests in the summer of 2016 but well after the widely covered protests in Ferguson beginning in 2014 and Baltimore in the spring of 2015.
As we discussed above, the image represents a necessarily abstracted and idealized version of community policing, meaning our test gauged reactions to this idealized positive image rather than to the full breadth of quite disparate community policing activities implemented in different departments (some of which may in fact produce negative interactions simply by bringing police and civilians into increased contact).
Simpson (2017) presents a potentially pertinent finding. His respondents evaluated police officers presented in civilian clothing as less approachable, accountable, and respectful than officers presented in uniform. Together with our finding that some respondents “backlashed” against the community policing image, this raises the possibility that citizens may, under some circumstances, react negatively if they perceive that police officers are trying to be overly friendly rather than professional and authoritative. This evidence supports the hypotheses of Lowrey et al. (2016) regarding “overaccommodation.”
References
Adelaar, T., Chang, S., Lancendorfer, K. M., Byoungkwan, L., & Morimoto, M. (2010). Effects of media formats on emotions and impulse buying intent. Journal of Information Technology, 18(4), 247–266.
Arguel, A., & Jamet, E. (2009). Using video and static pictures to improve learning of procedural contents. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(2), 354–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.014.
Baker, R., Blumberg, S. J., Brick, J. M., Couper, M. P., Courtright, M., ... & Groves, R. M. (2010). Research synthesis: AAPOR report on online panels. Public Opinion Quarterly, 74(4), 711–781.
Balko, R. (2013). Rise of the warrior cop: the militarization of America’s police forces. Philadelphia, PA: PublicAffairs.
Boivin, R., Gendron, A., Faubert, C., & Poulin, B. (2017). The malleability of attitudes toward the police: immediate effects of the viewing of police use of force videos. Police Practice and Research, 18(4), 366–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2016.1230063.
Bosman, J., & Apuzzo, M. (2014, August 14). In wake of clashes, calls to demilitarize police. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/15/us/ferguson-missouri-in-wake-of-clashes-calls-to-demilitarize-police.html
Bowman, Q. (2014). Post Ferguson, senators question military-to-police weapons programs. PBS NewsHour. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/postferguson-senators-question-government-program-provide-military-weapons-police
Braga, A. A., Brunson, R. K., & Drakulich, K. M. (2019). Race, place, and effective policing. Annual Review of Sociology, 45(1), 535–555. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073018-022541.
Braga, A. A., Winship, C., Tyler, T. R., Fagan, J., & Meares, T. L. (2014). The salience of social contextual factors in appraisals of police interactions with citizens: a randomized factorial experiment. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 30(4), 599–627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-014-9216-7.
Brandl, S. G., Frank, J., Worden, R. E., & Bynum, T. S. (1994). Global and specific attitudes toward the police: disentangling the relationship. Justice Quarterly, 11(1), 119–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829400092161.
Brown, B., & Benedict, W. R. (2002). Perceptions of the police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 25(3), 542–580. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510210437032.
Calfano, B. R., & Kruse, A. (2016). Beyond surveillance: the effects of issue ad vividness and anxiety on information use. American Politics Research, 44(6), 1098–1122. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X16631416.
Callanan, V. J., & Rosenberger, J. S. (2011). Media and public perceptions of the police: examining the impact of race and personal experience. Policing and Society, 21(2), 167–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2010.540655.
Chermak, S., McGarrell, E., & Gruenewald, J. (2006). Media coverage of police misconduct and attitudes toward police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 29(2), 261–281. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510610667664.
Chermak, S., & Weiss, A. (2006). Community policing in the news media. Police Quarterly, 9(2), 135–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611105281630.
Cobbina, J. E. (2019). Hands up, don’t shoot: why the protests in Ferguson and Baltimore matter, and how they changed America. New York: New York University Press.
Cowart, H. S., Saunders, L. M., & Blackstone, G. E. (2016). Picture a protest: analyzing media images tweeted from Ferguson. Social Media + Society, 2(4), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305116674029.
Culhane, S. E., Boman, J. H., & Schweitzer, K. (2016). Public perceptions of the justifiability of police shootings: the role of body cameras in a pre- and post-Ferguson experiment. Police Quarterly, 19(3), 251–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611116651403.
Davis, E., Whyde, A., & Langton, L. (2018). Contacts between police and the public, 2015. (NCJ 251145). Office of Justice Programs. https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=6406
Desmond, M., Papachristos, A. V., & Kirk, D. S. (2016). Police violence and citizen crime reporting in the black community. American Sociological Review, 81(5), 857–876. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416663494.
Detenber, B. H., Simons, R. F., & Bennett, G. G. (1998). Roll ‘em!: the effects of picture motion on emotional responses. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 42(1), 113–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838159809364437.
Donovan, K. M., & Klahm, C. F. (2015). The role of entertainment media in perceptions of police use of force. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42(12), 1261–1281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854815604180.
Dowler, K. (2002). Media influence on citizen attitudes toward police effectiveness. Policing and Society, 12(3), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460290032369.
Dowler, K. (2003). Media consumption and public attitudes toward crime and justice: the relationship between fear of crime, punitive attitudes, and perceived police effectiveness. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 10(2), 109–126.
Dowler, K., & Zawilski, V. (2007). Public perceptions of police misconduct and discrimination: examining the impact of media consumption. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(2), 193–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2007.01.006.
Du, Y. R., Zhu, L., & Cheng, B. K. L. (2019). Are numbers not trusted in a “post-truth” era? An Experiment on the Impact of Data on News Credibility. Electronic News. https://doi.org/10.1177/1931243119883839.
Eschholz, S., Blackwell, B. S., Gertz, M., & Chiricos, T. (2002). Race and attitudes toward the police: assessing the effects of watching “reality” police programs. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(4), 327–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(02)00133-2.
Fine, A. D., Rowan, Z., & Simmons, C. (2019). Do politics Trump race in determining America’s youths’ perceptions of law enforcement? Journal of Criminal Justice, 61, 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.01.003.
Fox, J. (1991). Regression diagnostics: an introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Gabbidon, S. L., & Higgins, G. E. (2009). The role of race/ethnicity and race relations on public opinion related to the treatment of blacks by the police. Police Quarterly, 12(1), 102–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611108329692.
Gaines, B. J., Kuklinski, J. H., & Quirk, P. J. (2007). The logic of the survey experiment reexamined. Political Analysis, 15(1), 1–20.
Gately, G., & Stolberg, S. G. (2015). Baltimore Police assailed for response after Freddie Gray’s death. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/17/us/baltimore-police-assailed-for-response-after-freddie-grays-death.html.
Gauthier, J. F., & Graziano, L. M. (2018). News media consumption and attitudes about police: in search of theoretical orientation and advancement. Journal of Crime and Justice, 41(5), 504–520. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2018.1472625.
Gerbner, G. (1970). Cultural indicators: the case of violence in television drama. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 388(1), 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/000271627038800108.
Graziano, L. M., & Gauthier, J. F. (2019). Examining the racial-ethnic continuum and perceptions of police misconduct. Policing and Society, 29(6), 657–672. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2017.1310859.
Graziano, L., Schuck, A., & Martin, C. (2010). Police misconduct, media coverage, and public perceptions of racial profiling: an experiment. Justice Quarterly, 27(1), 52–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820902763046.
Hirschfield, P. J., & Simon, D. (2010). Legitimating police violence: newspaper narratives of deadly force. Theoretical Criminology. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480609351545.
Holmes, M. D., Painter, M. A., & Smith, B. W. (2019). Race, place, and police-caused homicide in U.S. municipalities. Justice Quarterly, 36(5), 751–786. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1427782.
Intravia, J., Wolff, K. T., & Piquero, A. R. (2018). Investigating the effects of media consumption on attitudes toward police legitimacy. Deviant Behavior, 39(8), 963–980. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2017.1343038.
Institute for Intergovernmental Research. (2015). After-action assessment of the police response to the August 2014 demonstrations in Ferguson, Missouri. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.
Iyengar, S., & Hahn, K. S. (2009). Red media, blue media: evidence of ideological selectivity in media use. Journal of Communication, 59(1), 19–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x.
Jackson, J., & Bradford, B. (2009). Crime, policing and social order: on the expressive nature of public confidence in policing. The British Journal of Sociology, 60(3), 493–521. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2009.01253.x.
Jackson, J., & Sunshine, J. (2007). Public confidence in policing: a neo-Durkheimian perspective. The British Journal of Criminology, 47(2), 214–233. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azl031.
Jefferis, E. S., Kaminski, R. J., Holmes, S., & Hanley, D. E. (1997). The effect of a videotaped arrest on public perceptions of police use of force. Journal of Criminal Justice, 25(5), 381–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(97)00022-6.
Johnson, D., Wilson, D. B., Maguire, E. R., & Lowrey-Kinberg, B. V. (2017). Race and perceptions of police: experimental results on the impact of procedural (in)justice. Justice Quarterly, 34(7), 1184–1212. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1343862.
Kaminski, R. J., & Jefferis, E. S. (1998). The effect of a violent televised arrest on public perceptions of the police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 21(4), 683–706.https://doi.org/10.1108/13639519810241692.
Kraska, P. B. (2007). Militarization and policing—its relevance to 21st century police. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 1(4), 501–513. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/pam065.
Kraska, P. B., & Kappeler, V. E. (1997). Militarizing American police: the rise and normalization of paramilitary units. Social Problems, 44(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.2307/3096870.
Lasley, J. R. (1994). The impact of the Rodney king incident on citizen attitudes toward police. Policing and Society, 3(4), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.1994.9964673.
Lowery, W. (2016). They can’t kill us all: Ferguson, Baltimore, and a new era in America’s racial justice movement. Brown: Little.
Lowrey, B. V., Maguire, E. R., & Bennett, R. R. (2016). Testing the effects of procedural justice and overaccommodation in traffic stops: a randomized experiment. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 43(10), 1430–1449. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854816639330.
Maguire, E. R., Lowrey, B. V., & Johnson, D. (2017). Evaluating the relative impact of positive and negative encounters with police: a randomized experiment. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 13(3), 367–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-016-9276-9.
Miethe, T. D., Venger, O., & Lieberman, J. D. (2019). Police use of force and its video coverage: an experimental study of the impact of media source and content on public perceptions. Journal of Criminal Justice, 60, 35–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.10.006.
Mirko, M. (2013). Pictures: New Haven Community Policing. Courant.Com. https://web.archive.org/web/20191017225107/https://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-new-haven-community-policing-20130703-photogallery.html
Morgan, M., & Shanahan, J. (2010). The state of cultivation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(2), 337–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151003735018.
Mullinix, K. J., Leeper, T. J., Druckman, J. N., & Freese, J. (2015). The generalizability of survey experiments. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 2(2), 109–138. https://doi.org/10.1017/XPS.2015.19.
Mutz, D. C. (2011). Population-based survey experiments. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Olson, W. (2014, Aug. 13). Police militarization in Ferguson – and your town. Cato Institute. Available at: http://www.cato.org/blog/policemilitarization-ferguson-nationwide.
Osborne, J. W. (2013). Best practices in data cleaning: a complete guide to everything you need to do before and after collecting your data. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Parry, M. M., Moule, R. K., & Dario, L. M. (2019). Technology-mediated exposure to police–citizen encounters: a quasi-experimental assessment of consequences for citizen perceptions. Justice Quarterly, 36(3), 412–436. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1374435.
Peck, J. H. (2015). Minority perceptions of the police: a state-of-the-art review. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 38(1), 173–203. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-01-2015-0001.
Peffley, M., & Hurwitz, J. (2010). Justice in America: the separate realities of blacks and whites. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Pew Research Center. (2014). Stark racial divisions in reactions to Ferguson police shooting. Author. https://www.people-press.org/2014/08/18/stark-racial-divisions-in-reactions-to-ferguson-police-shooting/
Phillips, S. W. (2018). Eyes are not cameras: the importance of integrating perceptual distortions, misinformation, and false memories into the police body camera debate. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 12(1), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paw008.
Photo essay: police and protesters in Ferguson. (2014). St. Louis Post-Dispatch. https://www.stltoday.com/news/multimedia/photo-essay-police-and-protesters-inferguson/collection_31f31a00-62fd-56fd-800f-07a2bcbed3f4.html
Post Editorial Board. (2015). How many New Yorkers must die before the mayor brings back stop-and-frisk? New York Post. https://web.archive.org/web/20150803104630/https://nypost.com/2015/06/01/how-many-new-yorkers-must-die-before-the-mayor-brings-back-stop-and-frisk/
Potterf, J. E., & Pohl, J. R. (2018). A black teen, a white cop, and a city in turmoil: analyzing newspaper reports on Ferguson, Missouri and the Death of Michael Brown. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 34(4), 421–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986218787732.
Prowse, G., Weaver, V. M., & Meares, T. L. (2019). The state from below: distorted responsiveness in policed communities. Urban Affairs Review, 1078087419844831 https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087419844831.
Reisig, M. D., Mays, R. D., & Telep, C. W. (2018). The effects of procedural injustice during police–citizen encounters: a factorial vignette study. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 14(1), 49–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-017-9307-1.
Rios, V. M. (2011). Punished: policing the lives of black and Latino boys. New York: New York University Press.
Roche, S. P., Pickett, J. T., & Gertz, M. (2016). The scary world of online news? Internet news exposure and public attitudes toward crime and justice. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 32(2), 215–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-015-9261-x.
Romer, D., Jamieson, K. H., & Aday, S. (2003). Television news and the cultivation of fear of crime. Journal of Communication, 53(1), 88–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb03007.x.
Sigelman, L., Welch, S., Bledsoe, T., & Combs, M. (1997). Police brutality and public perceptions of racial discrimination: a tale of two beatings. Political Research Quarterly, 50(4), 777–791. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591299705000403.
Silver, J. R., & Pickett, J. T. (2015). Toward a better understanding of politicized policing attitudes: conflicted conservatism and support for police use of force. Criminology, 53(4), 650–676. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12092.
Simpson, R. (2017). The Police Officer Perception Project (POPP): an experimental evaluation of factors that impact perceptions of the police. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 13(3), 393–415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-017-9292-4.
Simpson, R. (2018). Officer appearance and perceptions of police: accoutrements as signals of intent. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/pay015.
Simpson, R. (2019). Police vehicles as symbols of legitimacy. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 15(1), 87–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-018-9343-5.
Solomon Zhao, J., & Ren, L. (2015). Exploring the dimensions of public attitudes toward the police. Police Quarterly, 18(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611114561304.
Sundar, S. S. (2000). Multimedia effects on processing and perception of online news: a study of picture, audio, and video downloads. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(3), 480–499. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900007700302.
Testa, P., & Dietrich, B. J. (2017). Seeing is believing: how vide of police action affects criminal justice beliefs. Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, CA. Available at: https://paultesta.org/publication/bc-2017/
Thompson, A., & Pickett, J. T. (2019). Are relational inferences from crowdsourced and opt-in samples generalizable? Comparing criminal justice attitudes in the GSS and five online samples. Journal of Quantitative Criminology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-019-09436-7
Topaz, J. (2014). Critics slam “militarization” of police. POLITICO. https://web.archive.org/web/20190521202920/https://www.politico.com/story/2014/08/ferguson-critics-police-militarization-110017
Tran, H. L. (2015). More or less? Multimedia effects on perceptions of news websites. Electronic News, 9(1), 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/1931243115572821.
Tyler, T. R. (2006). Why people obey the law (Vol. 2nd). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Weinberg, J., Freese, J., & McElhattan, D. (2014). Comparing data characteristics and results of an online factorial survey between a population-based and a crowdsource-recruited sample. Sociological Science, 1, 292–310. https://doi.org/10.15195/v1.a19.
Weisburd, D., & Eck, J. E. (2004). What can police do to reduce crime, disorder, and fear? The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 593(1), 42–65.
Weitzer, R. (2002). Incidents of police misconduct and public opinion. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(5), 397–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(02)00150-2.
Weitzer, R., & Kubrin, C. E. (2004). Breaking news: how local TV news and real-world conditions affect fear of crime. Justice Quarterly, 21(3), 497–520. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820400095881.
Weitzer, R., & Tuch, S. A. (2004a). Reforming the police: racial differences in public support for change. Criminology, 42(2), 391–416. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00524.x.
Weitzer, R., & Tuch, S. A. (2004b). Race and perceptions of police misconduct. Social Problems, 51(3), 305–325. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2004.51.3.305.
Wozniak, K. H., Calfano B. R., & Drakulich K. M. (2019). A “Ferguson Effect” on 2016 Presidential Vote Preference? Findings from a Framing Experiment Examining “Shy Voters” and Cues Related to Policing and Social Unrest. Social Science Quarterly 100(4), 1023–1038.
Yeager, D. S., & Krosnick, J. A. (2012). Does mentioning “some people” and “other people” in an opinion question improve measurement quality? Public Opinion Quarterly, 76(1), 131–141. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfr066.
Funding
This research was supported by a Joseph P. Healey research grant from the University of Massachusetts Boston.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 14.1 kb)
Appendix
Appendix
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wozniak, K.H., Drakulich, K.M. & Calfano, B.R. Do photos of police-civilian interactions influence public opinion about the police? A multimethod test of media effects. J Exp Criminol 17, 1–27 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-020-09415-0
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-020-09415-0