Abstract
A quantitative microbial risk assessment method can be used to evaluate infections probabilities for microorganisms in a specific place. The methodology provides suitable information to generate strategies focusing on health problems. Giardia cysts (GC) and Cryptosporidium oocysts (CO) are considered emerging pathogens that can infect human and animals by ingesting contaminated food or water, where food and water are transport vehicles for these parasites. Studies for GC and CO have reported occurrences for these parasites in water up to 100%, and some of these studies documented a number of cases, about 403,000 people, infected worldwide. This review is focused on compiling the most relevant works assessing the risk for GC and CO and their presence in different water samples that are susceptible for direct and indirect human consumption. The annual risk infection probability for these parasites has been reported from different water sources, with a range between 1 × 10−6 and 1, while the world standard regulation is 1 × 10−4. The infection probability depends not only on water quality but also on water treatment implementations.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adam, R. D. (2001). Biology of Giardia lamblia. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 14(3), 447–475.
Ahmed, M. F. (2014). A model for prediction of microbial disease burden of water supply options in Bangladesh. Stamford Journal Microbiology, 4(1), 31–36.
Ahmed, W., Vieritz, A., Goonetilleke, A., & Gardner, T. (2010). Health risk from the use of roof-harvested rainwater in Southeast Queensland, Australia, as potable or nonpotable water, determined using quantitative microbial risk assessment. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 76(22), 7382–7391.
Ahmed, W., Brandes, H., Gyawali, P., Sidhu, J. P. S., & Toze, S. (2014). Opportunistic pathogens in roof-captured rainwater samples, determined using quantitative PCR. Water Research, 53, 361–369.
An, W., Zhang, D., Xiao, S., & Yang, M. (2012). Risk assessment of Giardia in rivers of southern China based on continuous monitoring. Journal of Environmental Science, 24(2), 309–313.
Andersen, S.T. (2015) Urban flooding and health risk analysis by use of quantitative microbial risk assessment—limitations and improvements. PhD thesis, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
Armon, R., Gold, D., Brodsky, M., & Oron, G. (2002). Surface and subsurface irrigation with effluents of different qualities and presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in soil and on crops. Water Science and Technology, 46(3), 115–122.
Asano, T., & Cotruvo, J. A. (2004). Groundwater recharge with reclaimed municipal wastewater: health and regulatory considerations. Water Research, 38, 1941–1951.
Ashbolt, N. (2015). Microbial contamination of drinking water and human health from community water systems. Current Environmental Health Reports, 2(1), 95–106.
Ashbolt, N., Schoen, M., Soller, J., & Roser, J. (2010). Predicting pathogen risks to aid beach management: the real value of quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). Water Research, 44, 4692–4703.
Balderrama-Carmona, A. P., Gortáres-Moroyoqui, P., Álvarez-Valencia, L. H., Castro-Espinoza, L., Balderas-Cortés, J. J., Mondaca-Fernández, I., Chaidez-Quiroz, C., & Meza-Montenegro, M. M. (2014). Occurrence and quantitative microbial risk assessment of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in soil and airborne dust samples. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 26, 123–127.
Balderrama-Carmona, A. P., Gortáres-Moroyoqui, P., Álvarez-Valencia, L. H., Castro-Espinoza, L., Balderas-Cortés, J. J., Mondaca-Fernández, I., Chaidez-Quiroz, C., & Meza-Montenegro, M. M. (2015). Quantitative microbial risk assessment of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in well water from a native community of Mexico. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 25(5), 570–582.
Balthazard-Accou, K., Fifi, U., Agnamey, P., Casimir, J. A., Brasseur, P., & Emmanuel, E. (2014). Influence of ionic strength and soil characteristics on the behavior of cryptosporidium oocysts in saturated porous media. Chemosphere, 103, 114–120.
Barbeau, B., Payment, P., Coallier, J., Clement, B., & Prevost, M. (2000). Evaluating the risk of infection from the presence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in drinking water. Quantitative Microbiology, 2(1), 37–54.
Barwick, R., Mohammed, H., White, M., & Bryant, R. (2003). Prevalence of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. on dairy farms in southeastern New York state. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 59, 1–11.
Betancourt, W., Duarte, D., Vásquez, R., & Gurian, P. (2014). Cryptosporidium and Giardia in tropical recreational marine waters contaminated with domestic sewage: estimation of bathing-associated disease risks. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 85(1), 268–273.
Burnet, J. B., Penny, C., Ogorzaly, L., & Cauchie, H. M. (2014). Spatial and temporal distribution of cryptosporidium and giardia in a drinking water resource: implications for monitoring and risk assessment. Science of Total Environment, 472, 1023–1035.
Caccio, S., & Widmer, G. (2014). Cryptosporidium: parasite and disease. Wein: Springer.
Caccio, S., De Giacomo, M., Aulicino, F., & Pozio, E. (2003). Giardia cysts in wastewater treatment plants in Italy. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69, 3393–3398.
Caccio, S., Thompson, R., McLauchlin, J., & Smith, H. (2005). Unravelling cryptosporidium and giardia epidemiology. Trends in Parasitology, 21(9), 430–437.
Calabrese, E., Barnes, R., Staneck III, E., Pastides, H., Gilbert, C. E., Veneman, P., et al. (1989). How much soil do young children ingest: an epidemiologic study. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 10(2), 123–137.
Cann, K., Thomas, D., Salmon, R., Win-Jones, A. P., & Kay, D. (2013). Extreme water-related weather events and waterborne disease. Epidemiology and Infection, 141, 671–686.
Carmena, D., Aguinagalde, X., Zigorraga, C., Fernández-Crespo, J. C., & Ocio, J. A. (2006). Presence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in drinking water supplies in northern Spain. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 102(3), 619–629.
Carlander, A., Schonning C., .Stenstrom, T.A. (2009). Energy forest irrigated with wastewater: a comparative microbial risk assessment. Journal of Water and Health, 7, 413-433.
Castro-Hermida, J., García-Presedo, I., Almeida, A., & Mezo, M. (2010). Cryptosporidium and Giardia detection in water bodies of Galicia, Spain. Water Research, 44(20), 5887–5896.
Castro-Hermida, J., García-Presedo, I., Almeida, A., González-Warleta, M., Correia Da Costa, J. M., & Mezo, M. (2011). Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in two areas of Galicia (NW Spain). Science of Total Environment, 409(13), 2451–2459.
CDC (2012) Global water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH). Center of Disease Control and Prevention web. https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/global/wash_statistics.html#two. Accessed 10 November 2016.
Cedillo-Rivera, R., Leal, Y.A., Yépez-Mulia, L., Gómez-Delgado, A., Ortega-Pierres, G., Tapia-Conyer, R., Muñoz, O. (2009). Seroepidemiology of Giardiasis in Mexico. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 80, 6–10.
Chaidez, C., Soto, M., Gortáres, P., & Mena, K. (2005). Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in irrigation water and its impact on the fresh produce industry. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 15, 339–345.
Chen, H., & Hoover, D. G. (2003). Pressure inactivation kinetics of Yersinia enterocolitica ATCC 35669. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 87(1–2), 161–117.
Cheng, A., Lucy, F., Graczyk, T., Broaders, M. A., Tamang, L., & Connolly, M. (2009). Fate of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis oocysts and Giardia duodenalis cysts during secondary wastewater treatments. Parasitolology Research, 105, 689–696.
Conlan, A. J. K., Line, J. E., Hiett, K., Coward, C., Van Diemen, P. M., Stevens, M. P., et al. (2011). Transmission and dose–response experiments for social animals: a reappraisal of the colonization biology of Campylobacter jejuni in chickens. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 8, 1720–1735.
Coupe, S., Delabre, K., Pouillot, R., Houdart, S., Santillana-Hayat, M., & Derouin, F. (2006). Detection of Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in surface water, including recreational areas: a one-year prospective study. FEMS Immunol and Medical Microbiology, 47(3), 351–359.
Craun, G., Hubbs, S., Frost, F., Calderon, R. L., & Via, S. H. (1998). Waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis. American Water Works Association Journal, 90, 81–91.
Cummins, E., Kennedy, R., & Cormican, M. (2010). Quantitative risk assessment of Cryptosporidium in tap water in Ireland. Science of Total Environment, 408, 740–753.
Daly, E., Roy, S., Blaney, D., Manning, J., et al. (2009). Outbreak of giardiasis associated with a community drinking-water source. Epidemiology Infect, 15, 1–10.
De Keuckelaere, A., Jacxsens, L., Amoah, P., et al. (2015). Zero risk does not exist: lessons learned from microbial risk assessment related to use of water and safety of fresh produce. Compr Rev Food Sci F. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12140.
Donovan, E., Unice, K., Roberts, J., et al. (2008). Risk of gastrointestinal disease associated with exposure to pathogens in the water of the lower Passaic River. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 74, 994–100.
Duncanson, M., Russell, N., Weinstein, P., et al. (2000). Rates of notified cryptosporidiosis and quality of drinking water supplies in Aotearoa, New Zealand. Water Research, 34, 3804–3812.
Dupont, H., Chappell, C., Sterlig, L., Okhuysen, P., et al. (1995). The infectivity of C. parvum in healthy volunteers. New England Journal of Medicine, 332, 855–859.
Farber, J. M., Rossb, W. H., & Harwig, J. (1996). Health risk assessment of Listeria monocytogenes in Canada. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 30, 145–156.
Faubert, G. (2000). Immune response to Giardia duodenalis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 13(1), 35–54.
Gale, P. (2001). Developments in microbiological risk assessment for drinking water. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 91, 191–205.
García, A., Yanko, W., Batzer, G., & Widmer, G. (2002). Giardia cysts in tertiary-treated wastewater effluents: are they infective? Water Environmental Research, 74, 541–544.
Gerwig, G., van Kuik, A., Leeflang, B., Kamerling, J. P., Vliegenthart, J. F., Karr, C. D., & Jarroll, E. L. (2002). The Giardia intestinalis filamentous cyst wall contains a novel β (1-3)-N-acetyl-D-galactosamine polymer: a structural and conformational study. Glycobiology, 12(8), 499–505.
Gortáres-Moroyoqui, P., Castro-Espinoza, L., Naranjo, J., Karpiscak, M. M., Freitas, R. J., & Gerba, C. P. (2011). Microbiological water quality in a large irrigation system: El Valle del Yaqui, Sonora México. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, 46(14), 1708–1712.
Haas, C., Rose, J., & Gerba, C. (1999). Quantitative microbial risk assessment. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Helmreich, B., & Horn, H. (2009). Opportunities in rainwater harvesting. Desalination, 248, 118–124.
Heyworth, J., Glonek, G., Maynard, E., Baghurst, P. A., & Finlay-Jones, J. (2006). Consumption of untreated tank rainwater and gastroenteritis among young children in South Australia. International Journal of Epidemioloy, 35(4), 1051–1058.
Hoornstra, E., Hartog, B. (2003). A quantitative risk assessment on Cryptosporidium in food and water. Teagasc web. http://www.teagasc.ie/publications/2003/conferences/cryptosporidiumparvum/paper05.asp
Hu, T. (2002). Detection of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in Central Taiwan rivers by immunofluorescence assay. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection, 35(1), 68–70.
Hunter, P., Anderle de Sylor, M., Risebro, L., Nichols, G., Kay, D., & Hartemann, P. (2011). Quantitative microbial risk assessment of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis from very small private water supplies. Risk Analysis, 31(2), 228–236.
Jaidi, K., Barbeau, B., Carriere, A., Desjardins, R., & Prévost, M. (2009). Including operational data in QMRA model: development and impact of model inputs. Journal of Water and Health, 7(1), 77–95.
Karanis, P., Sotiriadoua, I., Kartashevc, V., Kourenti, C., Tsvetkova, N., & Stojanova, K. (2006). Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in water supplies of Russia and Bulgaria. Environmental Research, 102, 260–271.
Khaldi, S., Ratajczak, M., Gargala, G., Fournier, M., Berthe, T., Favennec, L., & Dupont, J. P. (2011). Intensive exploitation of a karst aquifer leads to Cryptosporidium water supply contamination. Water Research, 45, 2906–2914.
Korich, D., Mead, J., Madore, M., Sinclair, N. A., & Sterling, C. R. (1990). Effects of ozone, chlorine dioxide, chlorine, and monochloramine on Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst viability. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 56(5), 1423–1428.
Koken, E., Darnault, C.G.J., Jacobson, A.R., Powelson, D., Hendrickson, W. (2013). Quantification of Cryptosporidium parvum in natural soil matrices and soil solutions using qPCR. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 92, 135–144.
Kramer, M., Quade, G., Hartemann, P., & Exner, M. (2001). Waterborne diseases in Europe 1986–1996. American Water Works Association Journal, 93, 48–53.
Lammerding, A., & Paoli, G. (1997). Quantitative risk assessment: an emerging tool for emerging foodborne pathogens. Emerging Infection Disseases, 3, 483–487.
Leitch, G.J., He, Q. (2011) Cryptosporidiosis-an overview. The Journal of Biomedical Research, 25, 1-16.
Lim, Y., & Ahmad, R. (2004). Occurrence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in the Temuan orang Asli (aborigine) river system. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 35(4), 801–810.
Loganthan, S., Yang, R., Bath, A., Gordon, C., & Ryan, U. (2012). Prevalence of Cryptosporidium species in recreational versus non-recreational water sources. Experimental Parasitology, 131(4), 399–403.
Luján, H., & Svärd, S. (2011). Giardia: A Model Organism. Wien: Springer.
Magaña, D. (2006). Presencia y Estimación de Riesgo de Cryptosporidiumy Giardia en Agua de Mar de Playas del Estado de Sinaloa. Dissertion, Centro de Investigacion en Alimentacion y Desarrollo.
Maikai, B., Baba-Onoja, E., & Elisha, I. (2013). Contamination of raw vegetables with Cryptosporidium oocysts in markets within Zaria metropolis, Kaduna state, Nigeria. Food Control, 31, 45–48.
Man, H., van den Berg, H. H. J. L., Leenen, E. J. T. M., et al. (2014). Quantitative assessment of infection risk from exposure to waterborne pathogens in urban floodwater. Water Research, 48, 90–99.
Medema, G., & Schijven, J. (2001). Modeling the sewage discharge and dispersion of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in surface water. Water Research, 18, 4307–4316.
Moon, H., Chen, J. J., Gaylor, D. W., & Kode, R. L. (2004). A comparison of microbial dose–response models fitted to human data. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 40, 177–184.
Moon, H., Kim, H.J., Chen, J.J., Kodell, R.L.(2005) Model Averaging Using the Kullback Information Criterion in Estimating Effective Doses for Microbial Infection and Illness. Risk Analysis 25(5), 1147-1159.
Mota, A., Mena, K., Soto-Beltran, M., Tarwater, P., & Cháidez, C. (2009). Risk assessment of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in water irrigation fresh produce in Mexico. Journal of Food Protection, 72, 2184–2188.
Nydam, D., & Mohammed, H. (2005). Quantitative risk assessment of cryptosporidium species infection in dairy calves. Journalof Dairy Science, 88, 3932–3943.
Nygard, K., Schimmer, B., Sobstad, O., Walde, A., Tveit, I., Langeland, N., et al. (2006). A large community outbreak of waterborne giardiasis—delayed detection in a non-endemic urban area. BioMed Central Public Health, 6, 141.
Olivas-Enríquez, E., Flores-Margez, J., Serrano-Alamillo, M., Soto-Mejía, E., Iglesias-Olivas, J., Salazar-Sosa, E., & Fortis-Hernández, M. (2011). Indicadores fecales y patógenos en agua descargada al Río Bravo. Terra Latinoamericana, 29, 449–457.
Olivieri, A. W., Seto, E., Cooper, R. C., Cahn, M. D., Colford, J., Crook, J., et al. (2014). Risk-based review of California’s water-recycling criteria for agricultural irrigation. Journal of Environmental Engineering. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000833.
Onichandran, S., Kumar, T., & Lim, Y. (2013). Waterborne parasites and physico-chemical assessment of selected lakes in Malaysia. Parasitology Research, 112, 4185–4191.
Perz, J. F., Ennever, F. K., & Le Blancq, S. M. (1998). Cryptosporidium in tap water. American Journal of Epidemiology, 147(3), 289–301.
Pond, K., Rueedi, J., Pedley, S. (2004.) Pathogens in drinking water sources. Microrisk web. www.microrisk.com/uploads/pathogens_in_drinking_water_sources.pdf
Prystajecky, N., Huck, P. M., Schreier, H., & Isaac-Renton, J. L. (2015). Assessment of Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. as a microbial source tracking tool for surface water: application in a mixed-use watershed. Applied Environmental Microbiology, 80(8), 2328–2336.
Quintero-Betancourt, W., Gennaccaro, A., Scott, T., & Rose, J. (2003). Assessment of methods for detection of infectious Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in reclaimed effluents. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69, 5380–5388.
Razzolini, M., Weir, M., Matte, M., Matte, G. R., Fernandes, L. N., & Rose, J. B. (2011). Risk of Giardia infection for drinking water and bathing in a peri-urban area in Sao Paulo, Brazil. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 21(3), 222–234.
Rendtorff, R. (1954). The experimental transmission of human intestinal protozoan parasites. American Journal of Hygiene, 59(2), 209–220.
Rodriguez-Proteau, R., & Grant, R. (2005). Toxicity evaluation and human health risk assessment of surface and ground water contaminated by recycled hazardous waste materials. Handbook of Environmental Chemestry, 5, 133–189.
Rose, J., Haas, C., & Regli, S. (1991). Risk assessment and control of waterborne giardiasis. American Journal of Public Health, 81, 709–713.
Rose, J., Dickson, L., Farrah, S., & Carnahan, R. (1996). Removal of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms by a full-scale water reclamation facility. Water Research, 30, 2785–2797.
Rose, J., Huffman, D., & Gennaccaro, A. (2002). Risk and control of waterborne cryptosporidiosis. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 26, 113–123.
Ryan, U., & Caccio, S. (2013). Zoonotic potential of Giardia. International of Journal Parasitology, 43, 943–956.
Ryu, H., & Abbaszadegan, M. (2008). Long-term study of Cryptosporidium and Giardia occurrence and quantitative microbial risk assessment in surface waters of Arizona in the USA. Journal of Water Health, 06, 263–273.
Ryu, H., Alum, A., Mena, K., & Abbaszadegan, M. (2007). Assessment of the risk of infection by Cryptosporidium and Giardia in non-potable reclaimed water. Water Science and Technology, 55(1–2), 283–290.
Sato, M., Galvani, A., Padula, J., Nardocci, A. C., Lauretto, M., Razzolini, M., & Hachich, E. (2013). Assessing the infection risk of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in public drinking water delivered by surface water systems in Sao Paulo state, Brazil. Science of Total Environment, 442, 389–396.
Schets, F., van Wijnen, J., Schijven, J., Schoon, H., & de Roda Husman, A. M. (2008). Monitoring of waterborne pathogens in surface waters in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, and potential health risk associated with exposure to Cryptosporidium and Giardia in these waters. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 74(7), 2069–2078.
Schijven, J., & de Roda, A. (2006). A survey of diving behavior and accidental water ingestion among Dutch occupational and sport divers to assess the risk of infection with waterborne pathogenic microorganisms. Environmental Health Perspectives, 1, 712–717.
Schroeder, C., Jensen, E., & Miliotis, M. (2006). Microbial risk assessment. In S. Simjee (Ed.), Infectious disease: foodborne diseases (pp. 435–455). Totowa: Humana Press.
Shibata, T., & Solo-Gabriele, H. (2012). Quantitative microbial risk assessment of human illness from exposure to marine beach sand. Environmental Science and Technology, 46, 2799–2805.
Shultz, C., & Okun, D. (1984). Surface water treatment for communities in developing countries. London: John Wiley & Sons.
Signor, R., & Ashbolt, N. (2009). Comparing probabilistic microbial risk assessment for drinking water against daily rather than annualized infection probability targets. Journal of Water Health, 7, 535–543.
Smith, H., & Nichols, R. (2006). Cryptosporidium. In Y. Ortega (Ed.), Infection disease: foodborne parasites (pp. 233–276). GA: Editorial Board.
Smith, H., & Rose, J. (1998). Waterborne cryptosporidiosis: current status. Parasitology Today, 14, 14–22.
Soller, J., Bartrand, T., Ashbolt, N., Ravenscroft, J., & Wade, T. J. (2010). Estimating the primary etiologic agents in recreational freshwaters impacted by human sources of faecal contamination. Water Research, 44(16), 4736–4747.
Solo-Gabriele, H., LeRoy, A., Fitzgerald, J., Dubón, J.M., Michelle S., Karas, M., Paler, C. (1998). Occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in water supplies of San Pedro Sula, Honduras. Pan American Journal of Public Health, 4, 398-400.
Spanakos, G., Biba, A., Mavridou, A., & Karanis, P. (2015). Occurrence of cryptosporidium and giardia in recycled waters used for irrigation and first description of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. muris in Greece. Parasitology Research, 114, 1803–1810.
Staneck III, E., Calabrese, E., Barnes, R., & Pekow, P. (1997). Soil ingestion in adults—results of a second pilot study. Ecotoxicology Environmental Safety, 36, 249–257.
Sunger, N., & Haas, C. H. (2015). Quantitative microbial risk assessment for recreational exposure to water bodies in Philadelphia. Water Environmental Research, 87(3), 211–222.
Teunis, P., & Havelaar, A. (2002). Risk assessment for protozoan parasites. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 50(3–4), 185–193.
Teunis, P., Medema, G., Kruidenier, L., & Havelaar, A. (1997). Assessment of the risk of infection by Cryptosporidium or Giardia in drinking water from surface water source. Water Research, 31, 1333–1346.
USEPA. (1986). Ambient water quality criteria for bacteria. Washington: EPA.
USEPA (2013) Human Health Risk Assessment. Environmental Protection Agency web. http://epa.gov/riskassessment/index.htm
Vázquez, T., & Campos, R. (2009). Giardiasis. La parasitosis más frecuente a nivel mundial. Revista del Centro de Investigación de la Universidad LaSalle, 8(31), 75–90.
VROM. (2001). Waterleidingbesluit (Drinking water decree). The Hague: Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and the Environment.
WHO. (2003). Quantifying selected major risks to health, the world health report 2002. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Westrell, T., Bergtedt, O., Strenstrom, T.A., Ashbolt, N.J. (2003). A theoretical approach to assess microbial risks due to failures in drinking water systems. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 13, 181 – 197.
Wicki, M., Svoboda, P., & Tanner, M. (2009). Occurrence of Giardia lamblia in recreational streams in Basel-Landschaft, Switzerland. Environmental Research, 109, 524–527.
Willis, J., McClure, J., Davidson, J., McClure, C., & Greenwood, S. J. (2013). Global occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in shellfish: should Canada take a closer look? Food Research International, 52(1), 119–135.
Xiao, L., & Cama, V. (2006). Cryptosporidum and cryptosporidiosis. In Y. Ortega (Ed.), Foodborne parasites (pp. 57–108). GA: Editorial Board.
Xiao, G., Qiu, Z., Qi, J., Chen, J., Liu, F., Liu, W., et al. (2013). Occurrence and potential health risk of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in the Three Gorges reservoir, China. Water Research, 47(7), 2431–2445.
Yang, Z., Jiao, X., Li, P., Pan, Z., Huang, J., Gu, R., et al. (2009). Predictive model of Vibrio parahaemolyticus growth and survival on salmon meat as a function of temperature. Food Microbiology., 26(6), 606–614.
Zilberman, A., Zimmels, Y., Starosvetsky, J., Zuckerman, U., & Armon, R. (2009). A two-phase separation method for recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts from soil samples. Water Air and Soil Pollution, 203(1), 325–334.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Secretary of Public Education (SEP-PROMEP) project entitled “Study of Emerging Pollutants and Ecotoxicology” of the Thematic Network of Researchers and Academic Bodies for the Study of Emerging Pollutants and Ecotoxicology.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Balderrama-Carmona, A.P., Gortáres-Moroyoqui, P., Álvarez, L.H. et al. Perspectives of Quantitative Risk Assessment Studies for Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Water Samples. Water Air Soil Pollut 228, 185 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-017-3333-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-017-3333-5