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Red Cross Society in Imperial China, 1904–1912: A Historical Analysis

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Abstract

The Red Cross Society was introduced to China in the 1900s, when the nation was under the authoritarian reign of Qing dynasty. Famines and rebellions, along with the invasion of foreign military forces, created tremendous humanitarian crises that the corrupted imperial government was incapable to address. The Red Cross model was found to be a pragmatic solution by Chinese philanthropists. Using archived press releases, correspondences, and government statements, the study reconstructs the founding process of the first Chinese Red Cross organization from 1904 to 1912. The analysis reveals that the organization reflected the congruent interest of the imperial court and social elites in preserving the sovereignty and was therefore promoted by key players from both political and civil spheres. The trajectory of Red Cross movement in imperial China supports the synergism perspective of institutional theories. It demonstrates how micro-level factors such as leadership ties and alliances contribute to the interdependence of public and private sectors and facilitate the transformation of traditional charity to modern philanthropy.

Résumé

La Croix-Rouge a été lancée en Chine dans les années 1900, lorsque le pays était sous le règne autoritaire de la dynastie Qing. Les famines, les rébellions ainsi que l’invasion de forces militaires étrangères ont causé d’immenses crises humanitaires auxquelles le gouvernement impérial corrompu était incapable de faire face. Le modèle de la Croix-Rouge a été considéré comme une solution pragmatique par les philanthropes chinois. À l’aide d’archives de communiqués de presse, de correspondances et de déclarations des gouvernements, l’étude retrace le processus fondateur de la première organisation de la Croix-Rouge chinoise de 1904 à 1912. L’analyse révèle que l’organisation a reflété l’intérêt compatible de la Cour impériale et des élites sociales à préserver la souveraineté et qu’elle a donc été soutenue par les acteurs clés des sphères politiques et civiles. Le parcours du mouvement de la Croix-Rouge dans la Chine impériale soutient la perspective en synergie des théories institutionnelles. Il montre comment des microfacteurs tels que les liens de leadership et les alliances contribuent à l’interdépendance des secteurs public et privé et facilitent la transformation de la charité traditionnelle en philanthropie moderne.

Zusammenfassung

Die Rotkreuz-Gesellschaft wurde in China Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts eingeführt, als das Land unter der autoritären Herrschaft der Qing-Dynastie stand. Hungersnot, Aufstände und der Einmarsch ausländischer Militärkräfte zogen veheerende humanitäre Krisen nach sich, die die korrupte kaiserliche Regierung nicht handzuhaben wusste. Chinesiche Philanthropen erachteten das Rotkreuz-Modell als eine pragmatische Lösung. Unter Verwendung archivierter Pressemitteilungen, Korrespondenzen und Regierungserklärungen rekonstruiert die Studie den Gründungsprozess der ersten chinesischen Rotkreuz-Organisation von 1904 bis 1912. Die Analyse zeigt, dass die Organisation das Interesse des Kaiserhofs und der gesellschaftlichen Eliten an der Wahrung der Herrschaft widerspigelte und deshalb von wichtigen Akteuren aus politischen und zivilen Bereichen unterstützt wurde. Der Verlauf der Rotkreuz-Bewegung im kaiserlichen China belegt die Synergismus-Perspektive institutioneller Theorien. Es wird dargelegt, wie Faktoren auf der Mikroebene, z. B. Verbindungen und Allianzen der Führerschaft, zur Interdependenz zwischen öffentlichen und privaten Bereichen beitragen und die Umwandlung von traditoneller Wohlfahrt in moderne Philanthropie ermöglichen.

Resumen

La Sociedad de la Cruz Roja fue introducida en China en el siglo XX, cuando la nación estaba bajo el reino autoritario de la dinastía Qing. Hambrunas, rebeliones, junto con la invasión de fuerzas militares extranjeras, crearon tremendas crisis humanitarias que el corrupto gobierno imperial fue incapaz de abordar. Los filántropos chinos encontraron que el modelo de la Cruz Roja era una solución pragmática. Utilizando comunicados de prensa, correspondencias y declaraciones gubernamentales archivadas, el estudio reconstruye el proceso de fundación de la primera organización de la Cruz Roja china desde 1904 a 1912. El análisis revela que la organización reflejaba el interés congruente de la corte imperial y las élites sociales por preservar la realeza, y fue promovida, por consiguiente, por actores claves tanto de la esfera política como de la esfera civil. La trayectoria del movimiento de la Cruz Roja en la China imperial apoya la perspectiva del sinergismo de las teorías institucionales. Demuestra como factores a nivel micro, tales como los lazos de liderazgo y las alianzas contribuyen a la interdependencia de los sectores públicos y privados y facilita la transformación de la caridad tradicional en la filantropía moderna.

摘要

红十字会于二十世纪初引入中国,当时中国正被清朝所统治。饥荒、战乱以及外国军队的入侵带来腐败的清王朝无法应对的巨大人道主义危机。红十字会模式被中国慈善家视为实用的解决方法。通过查阅存档新闻、信函和政府公告,本研究重现了中国第一个红十字会组织在1904年至1912年间的创办过程。分析表明,该组织反映出朝廷和社会精英在维护主权方面的一致兴趣,因此受到了来自朝廷和民间主要推动者的一致 支持。红十字运动在封建中国的发展轨迹折射了体制理论中 的“协同”观念。它展示了领导力纽带和联盟等微观因素如何为公共和私人领域的互利共赢作出贡献,并促进了传统慈善向现代慈善的转型。

ملخص

تم تقديم مجتمع الصليب الأحمر إلى الصين في 1900، عندما كانت الأمة تحت حكم إستبدادي من سلالة حاكمة (Qing). المجاعات، الثورات، جنبا” إلى جنب مع غزو القوات العسكرية الأجنبية، خلقت أزمات إنسانية هائلة التي الحكومة الإمبراطورية الفاسدة كانت عاجزة عن التصدي لها. وجد أن نموذج الصليب الأحمر حل عملي من قبل المحسنين الصينيين. بإستخدام البيانات الصحفية التي تم وضعها في الأرشيف ، المراسلات والبيانات الحكومية، أعادت الدراسة إجراء تأسيس منظمة الصليب الأحمر الصينية الأولى من 1904 إلى 1912. يكشف التحليل أن المنظمة تعكس الإهتمام المتطابق من البلاط الإمبراطوري والنخب الإجتماعية في الحفاظ على السيادة، وبالتالي تم الترويج عن طريق لاعبين رئيسيين من كل من المجالين السياسي والمدني. مسار حركة الصليب الأحمر في الصين الإمبراطورية يدعم وجهة نظر التعاون للنظريات المؤسسية. يوضح كيف أن العوامل على المستوى الجزئي مثل علاقات القيادة والتحالفات تساهم في الترابط بين القطاعين العام والخاص وتسهل تحويل الأعمال الخيرية التقليدية إلى عمل خيري حديث.

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Notes

  1. Some scholars argued it was a tactic of the Qing court to claim credits, because the first edict recognized the establishment of IRCSS was issued 18 days after the organization was founded (Zhu 2005, p. 9).

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Acknowledgments

An earlier version of this paper was presented at the workshop “Histories of Humanitarianism: Religious, Philanthropic, and Political Practices in the Modernizing World” at the German Historical Institute, Washington D.C., on March 8, 2014. The comments received at that time are gratefully acknowledged. I would like to thank Dr. Gregory Witkowski, Dr. Marty Sulek, Dr. Thomas Cox, and Dr. William Schneider for their invaluable advice, and staff of the University Library at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis for their generous assistance accessing the materials. I also want to express a special thanks to Dr. Caroline Reeves, whose dissertation has inspired my research.

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Correspondence to Yannan Li.

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NGOs and nonprofits are used interchangeably in the article to describe the same type of organizations that operate independently of government and deliver resources for social or political purposes. The term NGO is typically used to describe nonprofit organizations that are not based in the United States.

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Li, Y. Red Cross Society in Imperial China, 1904–1912: A Historical Analysis. Voluntas 27, 2274–2291 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-015-9660-5

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