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An inventory of forest relicts in the pastures of Southern Tibet (Xizang A.R., China)

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Abstract

An inventory of isolated tree stands surrounded by desert pastures in Southern Tibet (A.R. Xizang, China) revealed more than 50 sites with vigorous trees of Juniperus convallium Rehder & E.H. Wilson and Juniperus tibetica Kom and additional more than 10 records where juniper trees had been destroyed between 1959–1976. The tree stands are not restricted to any specific habitat, and occur within an area stretching 650 km westwards from the current forest border of Southern Tibet. The trees are religious landmarks of the Tibetan Buddhists. The highest trees were found at an elevation of 4,860 m. Vegetation records, rainfall correlations and temperature data collected by local climate stations and successful reforestation trials since 1999 indicate that forest relicts fragmented through human interference could regenerate if current cattle grazing and deforestation practices are halted. The drought line of Juniperus forests in Southern Tibet is approximately 200–250 mm/a. A first pollen diagram from Lhasa shows forest decline associated with the presence of humans since at least 4,600 yr BP. The currently degraded commons developed in the last 600 yr. To date, no findings of remains of ancient forests in the Central Tibetan Highlands of the Changtang have been reported.

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Acknowledgements

The inventory was carried out within the framework of the Lhasa-Marburg University partnership programme supported since 2003 by the VW Foundation, in cooperation with the Tibet Plateau Biology Institute of Lhasa (1995–1999) and Institutes of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Xining, Lanzhou and Chengdu (1999–2004). The German Research Council generously supported all expeditions. Christiane Enderle (Marburg) prepared maps and graphs with her usual elaborateness. Jürgen Böhner (Hamburg) kindly provided data of Transeau ratios. Two unknown reviewers helped us improving the article considerably.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Geography, University of Marburg, Deutschhausstr. 10, Marburg, 35032, Germany

    Georg Miehe, Sabine Miehe, Martin Will & Lars Opgenoorth

  2. Department of Biology, Tibet University Lhasa, 36 Jiangso Road, Lhasa, A.R. Xizang, 850000, China

    La Duo & Tsering Dorgeh

  3. Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 59 Xiguan Street, Xining, Qinghai, 810001, China

    Jianquan Liu

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  1. Georg Miehe
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  5. La Duo
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  6. Tsering Dorgeh
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Correspondence to Georg Miehe.

Appendix

Appendix

  1. 1.

    Tangra Yumco-basin, 30°30′–31°30′ N/86°20′–86°50′ E, 4.500–4.800 m: According to local oral tradition (Nam Thag, Sheshik gompa, pers. comm., Sept. 9th 2003) the Juniperus forests of the lake basin were destroyed by fire during warfare ca 650 AD. Actually no remains, except of two Juniperus trees on the eastern bank of the lake at Kisum (31°06′ N/86°48′ E, 4,590 m), ca. 2.5 m, single-stemmed, 0.4 m Dbh (Dorgeh, pers. comm., April 6th 2006). No Juniperus pingii v. wilsonii. No seedling data.

  2. 2.

    Langma Chu near Tagtse, 29°14′ N/86°15′ E, 4,850 m, S-exp.: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀,30 cm Dbh, 3.5 m. Sacred. Known as westernmost Juniperus-tree along the Yarlung Zhangbo. More multi-stemmed individuals 0.8–2 m on the same slope. No seedling data.

  3. 3.

    Cliffs of the Yarlung Zhangbo gorge East of Tagtse, 29°12′ N/86°16′ E, 4,850 m, S-exp.: 6 Juniperus tibetica ♂ and ♀, 0.6–2 m, multi-stemmed, partly lopped. No seedling data.

  4. 4.

    Semik. Cliffs of the Yarlung Zhangbo gorge between Tagtse and Chung Riwoqe, 29°93′ N/86°18′ E, 4,200–4,600 m, S-exp.: Juniperus tibetica trees in steep rocks. Exploited for incense from villagers of Tagtse and Chung Riwoqe. No seedling data.

  5. 5.

    Chung Riwoqe, 29°11′ N/86°36′ E, 4,180 m: Juniperus-forests according to the pilgrimage record of Katoxitu of 1920 (K.H. Everding, pers. comm., 1997). Actually no remains.

  6. 6.

    Lheding, 29°13′ N/86°52′ E, 4300–4950 m, W-S-E-exp.: above the gompa and on neighboring slopes: Juniperus tibetica ♂ and ♀, open forest, multi-stemmed, to 3.5 m; at the upper limit gradually dwarf (0.5 m) with Juniperus pingii v. wilsonii. Seedlings.

  7. 7.

    South bank of the Yarlung Zhangbo East of Dobe, 29°09′ N/86°55′ E, 4,350 m, SE-exp. on ridge: solitary Juniperus tibetica tree, ca. 3 m (see Fig. 4). No seedling data.

  8. 8.

    Yarlung Zhangbo gorge between 87°07′ and 87°12′ E, 4,100–4,650 m, on both banks of the river, but mostly on sunny exposures of the northern bank. Best preserved tree stands around the ruins of Chugdö gompa (29°09′ N/87°09′ E, 4,250–4,650 m): Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, multi-stemmed, 6 m. Mostly resprouting globular bushes 2–3 m. Seedlings.

  9. 9.

    Limestone scree slope above La’ang Co, 29°19′ N/87°23′ E, 4,440–4,600 m, S-exp.: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, several multi-stemmed lopped bushes up to 2.5 m in Lonicera-Rosa thickets. Several stunted dwarf Juniperus trees on inaccessible rock-walls. No seedling data.

  10. 10.

    Kjelde near Lhaze: Northern bank of the Yarlung Zhangbo, 29°08′ N/87°35′ E, 4,034 m, S-exp.: Single Juniperus tree, close to the destroyed Tachung gompa, blasted and eradicated 1959, according to local informant (Sept. 18th 2003).

  11. 11.

    Sim Gompa, 29°06′ N/87°57′ E Gr., 4,300–4,750 m, S-exp.: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, 5 m, max. 0.4 m Dbh. Open forest and resprouting bushes. Seedlings. Largely depleted for road construction purposes around 1970 (according to local informants, Sept. 18th, 2003).

  12. 12.

    Sakya monastery, 28°54′ N/88°01′ E, 4,350 m, S-exp.: Several Juniperus trees destroyed during the Cultural Revolution (according to local informants, August 30th, 2005).

  13. 13.

    Intramontane basin of Zhetongmen, 29°23′ N/88°10′ E, 4,020 m, S-exp.: At Entsang several Juniperus trees were destroyed with the gompa during Cultural Revolution (local informant, August 30th, 2005).

  14. 14.

    Northern bank of the Yarlung Zhangbo,east of Xigaze, above Tuge, 28°21′ N/88°42′E, 3,980 m, S-exposed on granite crest 80 m above the floodplain: Westernmost record of Juniperus convallium, 3 monocious trees 4–6 m, single and multi-stemmed, max. 0.5 m Dbh. Seedlings, no drought damages. Remains of a sacred forest of more than 100 trees, largely destroyed during Cultural Revolution (according to local informant, August 31st., 2005).

  15. 15.

    Rindu, North of Namling, 30°03′ N/89°06′ E, 4,410–4,470 m, S-exp.: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, 2.5–4 m, open forest and resprouting bushes, young trees. No seedlings. Known as the northernmost Juniperus trees in this valley.

  16. 16.

    Northern bank of the Yarlung Zhangbo gorge near Tschewa, 29°18′ N/89°44′ E, ca. 4,200 m, NW-exp.: Several solitary Juniperus trees (4–8 m), at least partly religiously preserved. No seedling data.

  17. 17.

    Rimphu-valley, 29°12′ N/89°52′ E, 3,970 m: Juniperus tibetica, 8 m, 0.5 m Dbh. Dead tree in yard, 1995 crown damaged by storm. Local traditions tell about a Juniperus forest in the upper Rimphu valley, which was burnt (local informant, August 12th 1999).

  18. 18.

    Southern bank of the Yarlung Zhangbo gorge, 29°19′ N/89°56′ E, 3,820–4,000 m. Northern exposures: Juniperus convallium, ♂ and ♀, multi-stemmed trees 2–3 m, resprouting bushes and obviously young Juniperus (<0.5 m). Inaccessible rocky slopes have scattered stands of Juniperus convallium trees. No seedling data.

  19. 19.

    Southern (29°20′ N/89°57′ E) and northern (29°20′ N/89°59′ E) bank of the Yarlung Zhangbo gorge W of Nyemo: Juniperus convallium shrubs in leeward southern exposures until 4,580 m. Trees 6 m, 0.5 m Dbh, 3,980 m, S-exp. next to ruins of gompa. On the southern bank Juniperus convallium and Juniperus tibetica until 4,280 m; Juniperus convallium trees and shrubs only in easterly and westerly exposures, northerly facing stands only on very exposed rocky ridges. Juniperus tibetica only in northern exposures. Juniperus tibetica trees between 2 and 4 m, mostly multi-stemmed on sunny exposures between 4,500 and 4,850 m. Highest Juniperus tibetica tree of 4 m in 4,850 m. Seedlings on both banks.

  20. 20.

    Yarlung Zhangbo gorge West of Nyemo, 29°22′ N/90°09′ E, 4,080 m, SW-facing: 6 isolated Juniperus convallium, ♂ and ♀, 1.5–4 m, max. 0.3 m Dbh, known to locals as “seven brothers”. Seedlings.

  21. 21.

    Nyemo, 29°24′ N/90°10′ E, 3,850 m, in the yard of a farmhouse: Juniperus convallium, 0.3 m Dbh, 6 m, brought as a small tree from the Yarlung Zhangbo gorge and planted in the yard. No seedling data. Juniperus groves with deer are reported from the upper Nyemo valley as late as in 1947 (fide Aufschnaiter in Brauen 1983).

  22. 22.

    Yarlung Zhangbo gorge East of Nyemo, 29°20′N/94°14′ E, 3,720 m; boulder of ca. 30 m³ at the southern bank of the river: Juniperus convallium ca 1 m, growing on top of the boulder. No seedling data.

  23. 23.

    Tunda valley, 29°22′ N/90°20′ E, 4,080 m: Juniperus tibetica, 12 m, 0.3 m Dbh in a yard. Brought as a small tree from Loura. 29°24′ N/90°23′E, 4,350 m, S-exp.: Single Juniperus tree close to the gompa, destroyed by blasting during the Cultural Revolution. Tunda is famous for its incense products since 700 years. The main ingredient is Juniperus which was taken until 1984 totally from this valley. For the traditionally grounding technique in water mills logs need to have a diametre of at least 20 cm. No seedling data.

  24. 24.

    Loura: Northern tributary valley of the Yarlung Zhangbo gorge east of Tunda, 29°20′ N/90°21′ E, 4,350–4,500 m, SE-exp.: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, single-stemmed trees up to 5 m and coppice regrowth or resprouting trees 2.5–4 m, juvenile specimens of 50 cm. Seedlings.

  25. 25.

    Above Chuba, 29°28′ N/90°43′ E, 4100–4300 m, all exposures: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀; single, mostly multi-stemmed trees and bushes, 1.5–3 m, in open woodlands. Seedlings.

  26. 26.

    Nienang monastery, 29°45′ N/90°41′ E, 4,340–4,450 m, S-exp.: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, 12 m, max. 0.4 Dbh, trees and resprouting bushes around the monastery. Seedlings.

  27. 27.

    Western tributary of the Tolung Chu, 29°44′ N/90°42–43′ E, 4,050–4,400 m, southern and eastern exposures: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, 0.5–1 m, trees and resprouting bushes. No seedling data.

  28. 28.

    E of Tsurphu monastery N of 29°44′ N/90°44′ E, ca. 4,500–4,700 m relic trees on S-facing slopes: Juniperus tibetica. No seedling data.

  29. 29.

    Upper Tolung Chu near Yangpachen, 30°03′ N/90°35′ E, 4,300 m, S-exp.: Juniperus tibetica, tree, 3 m. No seedling data.

  30. 30.

    East of Yangpachen, 29°50′ N/90°21′ E, 4,300 m, SW-exp.: Juniperus grove was cut for military purposes in the 1960s and regenerates with coppice regrowth. No seedling data.

  31. 31.

    Nindung Xiang, 30°23′ N/90°54′ E, 4,250–4,300 m, southern exposures: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, trees up to 3 m, max. 0.3 m Dbh. Open tree stands in scree of roche moutoneé, sacred forest depleted during Cultural Revolution. No seedlings.

  32. 32.

    Western branch of the upper Kyi Chu (Rong Chu) between 30°15′ N/91°17′ E and 30°20′ N/91°04′ E from the foot of the slope (4,100 m) to the crest in southerly exposures: Open Juniperus tibetica forests and coppice regrowth after timber extraction, with interlocking crowns in undisturbed sites under religious protection (Tsowa gompa, 30°16′ N/91°10′ E, above 4,150 m). Seedlings.

  33. 33.

    Upper Kyi Chu catchment between 30°15′–30°24′ N and 91°23–91°43′ E, 4,200–4,860 m, preferably in southern exposures, extending to rocky easterly and westerly facing slopes, even on exposed rock cliffs of northern exposures: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, trees, up to 16 m, max. 2.5 m Dbh (in the sacred forest of Reting monastery, 30°18′ N/91°31′ E) and resprouting bushes in non-protected areas. Seedlings. Ludlow (1951) reports of deer, bears and leopards in great numbers in this forest.

  34. 34.

    Middle Kyi Chu catchment between 30°11′ N/91°21′ E and 30°00′ N/91°53′ E, 4,000–4,800 m, southern exposures: Juniperus tibetica; several sacred groves above villages and lopped bushes in the commons around the preserved groves. Largest groves above Barza gompa (30°05′ N/91°33′ E) and Shoten gompa (30°08′ N/91°33′ E). Seedlings.

  35. 35.

    Drigung in the eastern upper Kyi Chu catchment between 30°00′ N/92°02′ E and 30°06′ N/92°20′ E, 4,300–4,600 m; southern exposures: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, up to 7 m, 0.3 m Dbh, scattered tree stands and lopped bushes. The sacred forest around Drigung monastery was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution. Resprouting multi-stemmed trees up to 2 m. Seedlings.

  36. 36.

    Upper Nyang Chu, 29°54′ N/92°27′ E, 4,470 m, S-exp.: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, up to 0.3 m Dbh, up to 3 m, open tree stands. Westernmost forest in the upper Nyang Chu catchment. Seedlings.

  37. 37.

    Northern bank of the Nyang Chu upstream of 29°57′ N/92°51′ E: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, up to 7 m, up to 0.4 m Dbh. Numerous open forests on sunny slopes of winter pastures. On northern exposures confined to cliffs. Upper treeline ca. 4,600 m. Seedlings.

  38. 38.

    Gyama Chu, 29°42′ N/91°40′ E, 4,200 m: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, 5 and 6 m, 0.3 m Dbh, trees on hilltop and on SW-facing slope near gompa. No seedling data.

  39. 39.

    East bank of the Kyi Chu, Dako, 10 km NE of Meldro Gungkar, 29°53′ N/92°20′ E, 4.050 m: 2 Juniperus-trees. According to a local informant a greater number of trees were removed during Cultural Revolution. No seedling data.

  40. 40.

    Intramontane basin of Phempo: Sacred Juniperus trees and groves were destroyed together with the gompas during Cultural Revolution at Nalendra gompa (29°52′ N/91°07′ E, 3,900 m), and Ragme Jamkang (29°54′ N/91°02′ E, 4,000 m), according to local informant, Sept. 4th, 2005.

  41. 41.

    Lhasa, above Porong Ka and Chupsang monastery, 29°43′ N/91°07′ E, ca. 4,600 m S-exp.: 3 Juniperus tibetica and J. convallium (1–3 m tree + shrub) in steep cliff. The foundation legend of Tashi Tsöling monastery (4,050 m, above Chupsang) says that the monastery was situated amongst Juniperus trees. The last individuals are said to be cut during Cultural Revolution (head of Tashi Tsöling monastery, pers. comm. 1997). Aufschnaiter (in Brauen 1983) mentions a large Juniperus tree trunc W of Sera monastery in the late 40’s, obviously close to the locality of 41. No seedling data.

  42. 42.

    Tschalö, south of Lhasa, 29°38′ N/91°00′ E, 3,640 m: Juniperus tibetica, ♀, 15 m, 2 m Dbh, partly decayed, fenced and religiously worshipped. The tree most probably reaches the ground water in the gravel terrace of the Kyi Chu. No seedlings.

  43. 43.

    Eastern bank of the Kyi Chu, south of Lhasa, 29°35′ N/91°07′ E, 3,680 m, W-exp.: 2 Juniperus convallium trees in steep cliff. No seedling data. Nyima Thang (29°30′ N/91°07′ E, 3,900–4,200 m: Several Juniperus tibetica trees (12 m, up to 0.5 m Dbh), religiously protected. No seedling.

  44. 44.

    Upper Datse valley 29°33′ N/91°24′ E, 4,200 m S-exp.: Juniperus tibetica trees, 4 m, 0.2 m Dbh, trees near houses and in steep rock walls. No seedling data.

  45. 45.

    Chungse monastery, 29°27′ N/91°01′ E, 4,300–4,480 m, southern exposure: Juniperus tibetica ♂ and ♀, numerous caespitose resprouters from tree-stumps cut during Cultural Revolution around the monastery. Seedlings.

  46. 46.

    Chirong, 29°22′ N/90°53′ E, 3,600–4,200 m (crest), all exposures: Juniperus convallium, above 4,100 m in northern exposures Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, 5 m, up to 0.3 m Dbh. Open forest, best preserved above the village as sacred, partly cleared during Cultural Revolution. Seedlings. Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, single and multistemmed trees up to 0.3 m Dbh and 4 m on N-exposed slope above 3,900 m south of the village. Seedlings.

  47. 47.

    Nagarze, 28°58′ N/90°24′ E, 4,450 m, SE-exp.: Dead multi-stemmed Juniperus tree, 9 m, near to the gompa.

  48. 48.

    Tsamchü, 3 km east of Nagarze, 28°59′ N/90°26′ E, 4,400–4,650 m; ESE- to WNW-exposed: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, open forest, single and multi-stemmed, max. 0.5 m Dbh, 3–6 m, at the upper limit gradually dwarf (highest caespitose Juniperus tibetica shrubs 0.3 m, 4,750 m). Largest sacred forest south of the Yarlung Zhangbo, partly cleared during Cultural Revolution. Seedlings.

  49. 49.

    Samding monastery, 6 km east of Nagarze, 28°59′ N/90°28′ E, 4,450–4,550 m: Several Juniperus tibetica trees below the monastery, 2–5 m, 0.2–0.4 m Dbh. Seedlings.

  50. 50.

    Atsha, central peninsula of the Yamco Yumco, 28°58′ N/90°35′ E, 4,500–4,600 m, on open ridge: Several lopped Juniperus tibetica-trees. No seedling data.

  51. 51.

    Southern peninsula of the Yamco Yumco, 28°47–50′ N/90°30–48′ E, 4,450–4,850 m, all exposures (even north!): Juniperus tibetica ♂ and ♀, single and multistemmed trees (up to 0.4 m Dbh, up to 4 m), open woodlands, upslope gradually caespitose with Juniperus pingii—shrubs (see Fig. 5). Seedlings in all exposures.

  52. 52.

    Hills north of Taglung, 28°52′ N/90°22′ E, 4,400–4,600 m, S- and SW-exp.: Juniperus tibetica, 0.5–3 m, trees and scattered resprouting bushes. No seedling data. In Taglung: Juniperus tibetica, multi-stemmed tree, 5 m, in yard.

  53. 53.

    Upper Drip Chu, 29°01′ N/91°05′ E, 4400 m, E-exp.: The last four Juniperus trees were destroyed during a landslide in 1999, according to local informants (Sept. 19th, 2002). It is commonly believed in the valley that in the unknown past there were Juniperus forests below Drip (north of 29°00′ N/91°05′ E).

  54. 54.

    Chimpu monastery above Samye, 29°22′ N/91°32′ E, 4,070–4,600 m, S-exp.: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, trees max. 6 m, 0.4 m Dbh, resprouting bushes around the monastery. Seedlings.

  55. 55.

    Hills south of Zetang: During warfare of the 6th century AD. soldiers hid in (Juniperus) forests near Pyingiba. Forests were burnt down near Thangboche before the foundation of the monastery (11th century AD.) (P. Sörensen, pers. comm.).

  56. 56.

    Northern bank of the Yarlung Zhangbo above Pamtschü, 29°16′ N/91°57′ E, 3,650–4,600 m: Juniperus convallium ♂ and ♀, up to 4,100 m, where Juniperus tibetica continues up to the treeline at c. 4,600 m, ♂ and ♀. Trees of 0,4 m Dbh and up to 9 m only around the Densatil monastery (4,450 m). Seedlings.

  57. 57.

    Northern bank of the Yarlung Zhangbo above Halung, 29°18′ N/92°08′ E, 3,800–4,770 m, all exposures: Juniperus convallium, ♂ and ♀, lopped trees (up to 3 m, up to 0.3 m Dbh) in open woodlands, all exposures between 3,800 and 4,000 m; on southerly slopes up to 4,200 m. Juniperus tibetica between 4,050 and 4,770 m with single and multistemmed trees (up to 5 m, up to 0.3 m Dbh) on all exposures seemingly too dry for Betula and dense Salix-Sibiraea scrub. Seedlings.

  58. 58.

    Yarlung Zhangbo bridge at Sangri, 29°14′ N/92°00′ E, 3,560 m: Juniperus convallium, ♀, tree, 0.3 m Dbh, 6 m, in reach of the ground water. Believed of having been planted as sacred tree near the bridge. No seedlings.

  59. 59.

    Intramontane basin of Qusum, 29°04′ N/92°10′ E, 3.900 m: several isolated Juniperus tibetica trees mostly in yards. No seedling data.

  60. 60.

    South of Qusum, 29°02′ N/92°12′ E, 4,150 m: Juniperus tibetica-tree, 8 m, 0,3 m Dbh, on cliff of river terrace. No seedling.

  61. 61.

    Northern tributary of the Subansiri, 28°36′ N/92°32′ E, 4,070 m, all exposures: Juniperus tibetica, ♂ and ♀, single-stemmed trees, 3–6 m, 0.2–0.5 m Dbh. Seedlings.

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Miehe, G., Miehe, S., Will, M. et al. An inventory of forest relicts in the pastures of Southern Tibet (Xizang A.R., China). Plant Ecol 194, 157–177 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-007-9282-0

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