Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Multilevel Analysis of the Vulnerability, Disorder, and Social Integration Models of Fear of Crime

  • Published:
Social Justice Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The current research tests three conceptual models designed to explain citizens’ fear of crime—vulnerability, disorder, and social integration. These models are assessed for differential impact across the cognitive and affective dimensions of fear of crime. The analysis reported here considers the consecutive and simultaneous influence of individual- and city-level factors using multilevel modeling techniques. Recently collected survey data for 2,599 citizens nested within 21 cities across Washington State provide the empirical evidence for the analysis. Results indicate that the disorder model is best able to explain variation in both the cognitive and affective dimensions of citizens’ fear of crime across cities. The vulnerability and social integration models explain significantly less variation. Further, the vulnerability model lacks directional consistency across the observed dimensions of fear. Societal implications of the research findings are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Rountree and Land (1996a) explored measures associated with each model of fear of crime; however, a systematic comparison of the models was not the focus of their study. Further, their measures of disorder and social integration were assessed at the neighborhood level, while the current study is concerned with individual-level measures of perceived disorder and social integration.

  2. While it would be ideal to make comparisons across all three dimensions of the fear of crime, the data set for the current analysis only contains information capturing the cognitive and affective dimensions.

  3. Because poorer individuals are also more likely to have experienced victimization as compared to wealthier individuals, it could be argued that social vulnerability (as captured by income) should only be related to fear of crime through the experience of past victimization. We would like to note, however, that past victimization has been argued to influence fear of crime by inciting feelings of vulnerability concerning future victimization. Thus, victimization appears to operate through vulnerability to cause feelings of fear. For further discussion, see the work of Gibson, Jihong, Lovrich, and Gaffney (2002).

  4. Survey instruments were mailed to a random sample of household addresses (extracted from local telephone directories) within each of the cities included in the analysis presented here. From the 8,836 correct addresses identified, 2,861 respondents completed and returned a survey instrument, yielding a response rate of 32.4%. Thus, caution must be taken when generalizing the survey findings.

  5. For a complete list of scale items, see Appendix A.

  6. In the absence of more direct measures of vulnerability to criminal victimization, race, age, sex, income, and education are included in the present analysis. It should be noted, however, that these items are not treated as a unified scale measuring vulnerability. For increased accuracy, future analyses should attempt to capture more direct measures of vulnerability that would be suitable for scaling as a single construct.

  7. Ideally neighborhood-level contextual factors would be used in the current analysis, but such information was unavailable. Thus, city-level contextual factors were included in their place. This raises concern over the relationship between city-level factors (e.g., crime rate) and fear experienced within smaller special regions (e.g., perceived safety in the area where respondents live). Hypothetically, one could live in an affluent, safe neighborhood nested within a dangerous city, attenuating the influence of city-level factors. In the current analysis, however, the majority of the cities are rural towns with populations of less than 10,000 residents, arguably creating a situation where city-level factors, particularly crime rates, have widespread influence over fear of crime, despite location within the town.

  8. In accordance with the 2000 U.S. Census, the current study operationalized metropolitan areas as locations with a population nucleus of at least 50,000 people. Locations that were too small to meet the requirements for a metropolitan area were considered to be rural, with populations ranging from approximately 1,000 to 29,000 residents.

  9. Ideally, theoretically interesting cross-level interactions (e.g., the potential interaction between crime rates and individual perceptions of disorder) would be specified in the current study; however, the small sample size at level two (N = 21) was not large enough for such an analysis.

  10. It should also be noted that multicollinearity diagnostics were examined for both individual- and city-level variables. Tolerances ranged from .54 to .98 and Variance Inflation Factors ranged from 1.0 to 1.8, indicating that multicollinearity was not a concern in the present analysis. Moreover, bivariate correlations for all independent variables are presented in Appendix B.

  11. Additional analyses (not shown in tabular form) indicate that the changes in the effects of race, income, and education are primarily due to the inclusion of the disorder measure. More specifically, once disorder is included in the worry of victimization model, race, income, and education exert positive effects on respondents’ worry of victimization.

  12. Due to the small number of level-two groups available for analysis (N = 21) and the consequent reduction in statistical power (estimated at .44 for a weak correlation of .20), we caution the reader that statistical significance reported at level-two of the analysis is more conservative than traditionally desired (increasing the chance of Type II error). Thus, weaker relationships at level-two may not be detected in the current analysis.

  13. It should also be noted that separate bivariate analyses of crime trends (operationalized as the difference in violent and property crime rates between the years 2000 and 2002) were conducted to determine their potential influence on perceived risk and worry of victimization. These analyses were conducted separately due to the relatively small number of level-two groups (N = 21). The results of these tests indicated that neither violent nor property crime trends influenced the outcome measures.

References

  • Adams, R. E. (1992). Is happiness a house in the suburbs? The influence of urban versus suburban neighborhoods on psychological health. Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 353–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, D. M., Cynthia, W., & Baba, Y. (1994). Crime and safety-related concerns in a small community. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 19, 79–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baba, Y., & Austin, D. M. (1989). Neighborhood environmental satisfaction, victimization, and social participation as determinants of perceived neighborhood safety. Environment and Behavior, 21, 763–780.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumer, T. L. (1978). Research on fear of crime in the United States. Victimology, 3, 254–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumer, T. L. (1985). Testing a general model of fear of crime: Data from a national sample. The Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 22, 239–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumer, E. P., Messner, S. T., & Felson, R. B. (2000). The role of victim characteristics in the disposition of murder cases. Justice Quarterly, 17, 281–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belyea, M. J., & Zingraff, M. T. (1988). Fear of crime and residential location. Rural Sociology, 53, 473–486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (2002). Hierarchical linear models (2nd ed.). Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burby, R. J., & Rohe, W. M. (1989). Deconcentration of public housing: Effects of residents’ satisfaction with their living environments and their fear of crime. Urban Affairs Quarterly, 25, 117–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bursik, R. J., Jr., & Grasmick, H. G. (1993). Neighborhoods and crime: The dimensions of effective community control. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clemente, F., & Kleiman, M. B. (1977). Fear of crime in the United States: A multivariate analysis. Social Forces, 56, 519–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Covington, J., & Taylor, R. B. (1991). Fear of crime in urban residential neighborhoods: Implications of between- and within-neighborhood sources for current models. Sociological Quarterly, 32, 231–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denkers, A. J. M., & Winkel, F. W. (1998). Crime victims, well-being, and fear in prospective and longitudinal study. International Review of Victimology, 5, 141–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • DiPrete, T. A., & Forristal, J. D. (1994). Multilevel models: Methods and substance. Annual Review of Sociology, 20, 331–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erskine, H. (1974). The polls: Fear of violence and crime. Public Opinion Quarterly, 38, 131–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fattah, E. A., & Sacco, V. F. (1989). Crime and victimization of the elderly. New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferraro, K. F., & LaGrange, R. L. (1987). The measurement of fear of crime. Sociological Inquiry, 57, 70–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferraro, K. F., & LaGrange, R. L. (1992). Are older people most afraid of crime: Reconsidering age differences in fear of victimization. Journal of Gerontology, 47, S233–S244.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, B. S., & Sloan, J. J., III (2003). Unraveling the fear of victimization among college women: Is the ‘shadow of sexual assault hypothesis’ supported? Justice Quarterly, 20, 633–659.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furstenberg, F. F. (1971). Public reaction to crime in the streets. American Scholar, 40, 601–610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garofalo, J. (1979). Victimization and fear of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 16, 80–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garofalo, J., & Laub, J. (1978). Fear of crime: Broadening our perspective. Victimology, 3, 242–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gates, L. B., & Rohe, W. M. (1987). Fear and reactions to crime: A revised model. Urban Affairs Quarterly, 22, 425–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, C. L., Jihong, Z., Lovrich, N. P., & Gaffney, M. J. (2002). Social integration, individual perceptions of collective efficacy, and fear of crime in three cities. Justice Quarterly, 19, 537–564.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilchrist, E., Bannister, J., Ditton, J., & Farrall, S. (1998). Women and the fear of crime: Challenging the accepted stereotype. The British Journal of Criminology, 38, 283–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ginsberg, Y. (1985). Fear of crime among elderly Jews in Boston and London. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 20, 257–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, M. T., & Riger, S. (1989). The female fear. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hale, C. (1996). Fear of crime: A review of the literature. International Review of Victimology, 4, 79–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartnagel, T. F. (1979). The perception and fear of crime: Implications for neighborhood cohesion, social activity, and negative affect. Social Forces, 58, 176–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hindelang, M. J., Gottfredson, M. R., & Garofalo, J. (1978). Victims of personal crime. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, P. P., Marshall, D., & Sherrill, C. (2003). Multidimensional analysis of fear and confidence of university women relating to crimes and dangerous situations. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 33–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, A., & Baumer, T. L. (1982). Street traffic, social integration, and fear of crime. Sociological Inquiry, 52, 123–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaycox, V. (1978). The elderly’s fear of crime: Rational or irrational? Victimology, 3, 329–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Junger, M. (1987). Women’s experiences of sexual harassment: Some implications for their fear of crime. British Journal of Criminology, 27, 358–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanan, J. W., & Pruitt, M. V. (2002). Modeling fear of crime and perceived victimization risk: (In)significance of neighborhood integration. Sociological Inquiry, 72, 527–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasarda, J. D., & Janowitz, M. (1974). Community attachment in mass society. American Sociological Review, 39, 328–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, L. W., & Krahn, H. (1984). Rural–urban origin and fear of crime: The case for ‘rural baggage’. Rural Sociology, 49, 247–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, L. W., & Silverman, R. A. (1985). Significant others and fear of crime among the elderly. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 20, 241–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M. (1998). Social well-being. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61, 121–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Killias, M., & Clerici, C. (2000). Different measures of vulnerability in their relation to different dimensions of fear of crime. The British Journal of Criminology, 40, 437–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krannich, R. S., Barry, E. H., & Greider, T. (1989). Fear of crime in rapidly changing rural communities: A longitudinal analysis. Rural Sociology, 54, 195–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaGrange, R. L., & Ferraro, K. F. (1989). Assessing age and gender differences in perceived risk and fear of crime. Criminology, 27, 697–720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LaGrange, R. L., Ferraro, K. F., & Supancic, M. (1992). Perceived risk and fear of crime: Role of social and physical incivilities. The Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 29, 311–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M., & Ulmer, J. T. (2000). Fear of crime among Korean Americans in Chicago communities. Criminology, 38, 1173–1206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, D. A., & Maxfield, M. G. (1980). Fear in the neighborhoods: An investigation of the impact of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 17, 160–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, D. A., & Salem, G. W. (1986). Fear of crime: Incivility and the production of a social problem. New Brunswick: Transaction Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maxfield, M. G. (1984). The limits of vulnerability in explaining fear of crime: A comparative neighborhood analysis. The Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 21, 233–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGarrell, E. F., Giacomazzi, A. L., & Thurman, Q. C. (1997). Neighborhood disorder, integration, and the fear of crime. Justice Quarterly, 14, 479–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pantazis, C. (2000). Fear of crime, vulnerability and poverty. British Journal of Criminology, 40, 414–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, K. D., & Onyekwuluje, A. B. (1992). The influence of demographic and economic factors on fear of crime among African Americans. Western Journal of Black Studies, 16, 132–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rader, N. E. (2004). The threat of victimization: A theoretical reconceptualization of fear of crime. Sociological Spectrum, 24, 689–704.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reisig, M. D., & Parks, R. B. (2000). Experience, quality of life, and neighborhood context: A hierarchical analysis of satisfaction with police. Justice Quarterly, 17, 607–629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riger, S., LeBailly, R. K., & Gordon, M. T. (1981). Community ties and urbanites’ fear of crime: An ecological investigation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 653–655.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, C. E., & Mirowsky, J. (1999). Disorder and decay: The concept and measurement of perceived neighborhood disorder. Urban Affairs Review, 34, 412–432.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rountree, P. W. (1998). A reexamination of the crime-fear linkage. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35, 341–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rountree, P. W., & Land, K. C. (1996a). Perceived risk versus fear of crime: Empirical evidence of conceptually distinct relations in survey data. Social Forces, 74, 1353–1376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rountree, P. W., & Land, K. C. (1996b). Burglary victimization, perceptions of crime risk, and routine activities: A multilevel analysis across Seattle neighborhoods and census tracts. The Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 33, 147–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sacco, V. F. (1985). City size and perceptions of crime. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 10, 277–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sacco, V. F. (1990). Gender, fear, and victimization: A preliminary application of power-control theory. Sociological Spectrum, 1, 485–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sampson, R., & Groves, B. (1989). Community structure and crime: Testing social disorganization theory. American Journal of Sociology, 94, 774–802.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, C., & McKay, H. (1942). Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skogan, W. G. (1990). Disorder and decline: Crime and the spiral of decay in American neighborhoods. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skogan, W. G., & Maxfield, M. G. (1981). Coping with crime. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, W. R., & Torstensson, M. (1997). Fear of Crime: Gender differences in risk perception and neutralizing fear of crime. The British Journal of Criminology, 37, 608–634.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snijders, T. A. B., & Bosker, R. J. (1999). Multilevel analysis: An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modeling. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanko, E. A. (1987). Typical violence, normal precaution: Men, women, and interpersonal violence in England, Wales, Scotland, the USA. In J. Hammer & M. Maynard (Eds.), Women, violence, and social control (pp. 122–134). London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanko, E. A. (1990a). Everyday violence: How women and men experience sexual and physical danger. London: Pandora.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanko, E. A. (1990b). When precaution is normal: A feminist critique of crime prevention. In L. Gelsthorpe & A. Morris (Eds.), Feminist perspectives in criminology (pp. 173–183). Philadelphia: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. B. (2002). Fear of crime, social ties, and collective efficacy: Maybe masquerading measurement, maybe deja vu all over again. Justice Quarterly, 19, 773–792.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. B., & Hale, M. (1986). Testing alternative models of fear of crime. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 77, 151–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warr, M. (1984). Fear of victimization: Why are women and the elderly more afraid? Social Science Quarterly, 65, 681–702.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warr, M. (1985). Fear of rape among urban women. Social Problems, 32, 238–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Will, J. A., & McGrath, J. H. (1995). Crime, neighborhood perceptions, and the underclass: The relationship between fear of crime and class position. Journal of Criminal Justice, 23, 163–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, F. P., McShane, M. D., & Akers, R. (2000). Worry about victimization: An alternate and reliable measure for the fear of crime. Western Criminology Review, 2, 1–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (1982). Broken windows. Atlantic Monthly, February, 46–52.

  • Yin, P. (1982). Fear of crime as a problem for the elderly. Social Problems, 30, 240–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Nicholas P. Lovrich, Michael J. Gaffney, and the Division of Governmental Studies and Services for providing the primary data analyzed herein. This research was supported, in part, by Project Safe Neighborhoods contract F03-68303004. Please direct correspondence to Noelle E. Fearn, Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice, Saint Louis University, 3500 Lindell Blvd., 211 Fitzgerald Hall, St. Louis, MO 63103.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Criminal Justice, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX, USA

    Travis W. Franklin & Cortney A. Franklin

  2. Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, USA

    Noelle E. Fearn

Authors
  1. Travis W. Franklin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cortney A. Franklin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Noelle E. Fearn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Noelle E. Fearn.

Appendices

Appendix A: Scale Items

Perceived Risk

  1. 1.

    How safe would you feel walking alone during the day in the area where you live?

    • (1) Very safe (2) Safe (3) Neither safe nor unsafe (4) Unsafe (5) Very unsafe

  2. 2.

    How safe would you feel walking alone in the area where you live at night?

    • (1) Very safe (2) Safe (3) Neither safe nor unsafe (4) Unsafe (5) Very unsafe

Worry of Victimization

How much do you worry about each of the following situations? Do you worry very frequently, somewhat frequently, seldom, or never about:

  1. 1.

    Yourself or someone in your family getting sexually assaulted

  2. 2.

    Being attacked while driving your car

  3. 3.

    Getting mugged

  4. 4.

    Getting beaten up, knifed, or shot

  5. 5.

    Getting murdered

  6. 6.

    Getting burglarized while someone is at home

  7. 7.

    Getting burglarized while no one is at home

Neighborhood Disorder

Using the answer key below, please write the number from the Answer Key that most accurately describes the extent of these problems in the neighborhood where you live.

Answer Key: (1) No Problem (2) Uncertain (3) A Problem (4) A Serious Problem

  1. 1.

    Vandalism

  2. 2.

    Groups of teenagers or others hanging out and harassing people

  3. 3.

    Garbage and litter

  4. 4.

    Traffic problems

  5. 5.

    People drinking to excess in public

  6. 6.

    Dogs running at large

  7. 7.

    Youth gangs are present

  8. 8.

    Noise

Social Integration

  1. 1.

    Would you describe the area where you live as a place where people mostly help one another or a place where people mostly go their own way?

    • (1) People help one another (2) People go their own way

  2. 2.

    Do you feel the area where you live is more of a “real home” or more “just a place to live”?

    • (1) Real home (2) Just a place to live

  3. 3.

    How often do you talk with your neighbors?

    • (1) Daily (2) 1–3 times a week (3) 1–3 times a month (4) Less than once a month

  4. 4.

    When you do a favor for a neighbor, can you trust the neighbor to return the favor?

    • (1) Always (2) Nearly always (3) Most of the time (4) Sometimes (5) Seldom

Appendix B: Bivariate Correlation Matrixes

Individual-Level Bivariate Correlation Matrix

 

Race

Gender

Age

Income

Education

Disorder

Social integration

Race

–

      

Gender

.02

–

     

Age

.06*

.07*

–

    

Income

.08*

.01

−.16*

–

   

Education

.03

.09*

−.09*

.31*

–

  

Disorder

−.08*

−.09*

−.12*

−.16*

−.13*

–

 

Social integration

.09*

.05*

.13*

.11*

.09*

.24*

–

  1. * p < .05

City-Level Bivariate Correlation Matrix

 

Violent crime

Property crime

Unemployment

Urbanism

Violent crime

–

   

Property crime

.60*

–

  

Unemployment

.27

.36

–

 

Urbanism

.35

.12

−.15

–

  1. * p < .05

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Franklin, T.W., Franklin, C.A. & Fearn, N.E. A Multilevel Analysis of the Vulnerability, Disorder, and Social Integration Models of Fear of Crime. Soc Just Res 21, 204–227 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-008-0069-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-008-0069-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation