Abstract
The current turbulent context in which we live in requires, more and more, that organisations focus on improving the workers’ performance. Individual performance is more than just the execution of specific tasks and it involves an ample variety of organisational activities that have important implications for the understanding and measurement of job performance. Considering the fact that most individual performance measures are developed in order to be applied in particular job-related contexts or cultures, our goal is to develop a job performance measure that might be applicable across jobs and cultures. After an extensive literature review, and based on studies that were developed in different cultural and job-related contexts, two dimensions—task and contextual—and eight sub dimensions of job performance were found: job knowledge, organisational skills, efficiency, persistent effort, cooperation, organisational consciousness, personal characteristics and interpersonal and relational skills. Confirmatory factorial analysis was used in order to test their relevance. The dimensions ‘personal characteristics’ and ‘persistent effort’ were merged. The resulting 29 item scale presents appropriate psychometric properties.
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Acknowledgments
Ricardo Gouveia Rodrigues is supported by Programa de Financiamento Plurianual das Unidades de I&D da FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior. NECE Research Centre: R&D Centre funded by the Multiannual Funding Programme of R&D Centres of FCT—Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, Ministry of Education and Science.
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Appendices
Appendix 1
Synthesis of the reviewed studies on JP
Author | Type of study | Sample | Performance dimensions proposed |
|---|---|---|---|
Borman and Motowidlo (1997) | Literature review | – | Contextual performance (1) Persisting with enthusiasm and extra effort as necessary to complete own task activities successfully (2) Volunteering to carry out task activities that are not formally part of own job (3) Helping and cooperating with others (4) Following organisational rules and procedures (5) Endorsing, supporting, and defending organisational objectives |
Anderson (1984) | Field study | Retail store employees (N—non specified) (USA) | (1) Knowledge and performance of duties (2) The use of judgment in carrying out the work (3) Promotion potential (4) Reliability and responsibility (5) Effectiveness in working with others |
Blau (1993) | Field study | 174 bank tellers (USA) | (1) Productivity (2) Dollar shortages (3) Self-development |
Borman and Brush (1993) | Literature review | – | (1) Technical activities and the mechanisms of management (planning and organizing, technical proficiency, administration and paperwork, decision making, problem solving, staffing, monitoring and controlling resources, delegating, collecting and interpreting data) (2) Leadership and supervision (guiding, directing, motivating others and providing feedback, maintaining good work relationships, coordinating subordinates and other resources to get the job done) (3) Interpersonal dealing and communication (communicating effectively—oral and written, representing the organisation to the public and clients, maintaining good working relationships, influencing others) (4) Useful personal behaviour and skills (persisting to reach goals, handling crisis and stress, organisational commitment) |
Field study | Army job incumbents (N—non specified) (USA) | (1) Core technical proficiency (2) General soldiering proficiency (3) Effort and leadership (4) Personal discipline (5) Physical fitness and military bearing | |
Borman et al. (2001) | Literature review | – | (1) Personal support (helping, cooperating, courtesy, motivating) (2) Organisational support (representing, loyalty, compliance) (3) Conscientious initiative (persistence, initiative, self-development) |
Chan and Schmitt (2009) | Field study | 160 entry-level employees in administrative positions (Singapore) | (1) Core technical proficiency (2) Motivational performance (job dedication—motivations to perform, learn, and work hard) (3) Interpersonal performance (interpersonal facilitation—interpersonal conflict resolution, negotiation and teamwork and cooperation) |
Cheng et al. (2007) | Field study | 128 construction professionals (Hong Kong or Australia) | (1) Task skills (knowledge that’s relevant to work, quality of work, skills, judgment, experience, accuracy, accountability, efficiency and initiative) (2) Behaviour (honesty, personal care, punctuality, cooperation, attitude and fairness) (3) Self (gender, age, interests, creativity and reliability) (4) Management skills (guest relations, leadership, communication skills, interpersonal relations and planning) |
Conte and Gintoft (2005) | Field study | 174 sales associates (USA) | (1) Sales performance (2) Costumer service |
Ng and Feldman (2009) | Literature review | – | (1) Core task performance (the basic required duties of a particular job: core task performance and performance in training programs) (2) Citizenship behaviour and creativity (3) Counterproductive performance (general counterproductive work behaviours, workplace aggression, substance use, tardiness and absenteeism) |
Fein (2009) | Literature review | – | (1) Job-specific task proficiency (the degree to which individuals can perform tasks central to their job) (2) Helping others (3) Displaying organisational conscientiousness (4) Demonstration of effort (the degree that people commit themselves to all job tasks, work at high levels of intensity, and continue to work under adverse conditions) (5) Personal discipline (the extent that individuals refrain from negative performance behaviours such as excessive absenteeism and infractions of work rules) |
Tett et al. (2003) | Field study | 335 market research field representatives (USA) | (1) Organisational skills (2) Technical skills (3) Self-motivation (4) Persuasiveness (5) Flexibility (6) Interpersonal skills (7) Stress tolerance |
Van Woerkom and de Reuver (2009) | Field study | 138 managers with different cultural backgrounds (Europe, Asia, North Africa and North America) | (1) Achievement (2) Competences mastered (3) Knowledge (4) Experience acquired (5) Personal development |
Williams and Hummert (1990) | Field study | 9 clerical employees and 9 supervisors (N = 18) (USA) | (1) Job knowledge (ability to adapt to new conditions, level of capability (skills), understanding of required duties, grasp of total job purpose) (3) Job performance (quantity of job performed, quality of job performed, consistency of job performed, safety) (3) Work relations [communication skills—written, oral; cooperation (works well with others)] (5) Personal characteristics (attendance; grooming) |
Coleman and Borman (1999) | Literature review | – | (1) Personal support (helping, cooperating) (2) Organisational support (endorsing, supporting and defending organisational objectives, following rules and procedures) (3) Job/task conscientiousness (persisting with enthusiasm and extra effort to complete activities successfully) |
Day and Silverman (1989) | Field study | 43 employees of a medium-sized accounting firm (USA) | (1) Potential for success (e.g., likelihood of becoming a manager in the firm); (2) Technical ability (e.g., understands technical aspects of the job); (3) Timeliness of work (e.g., completes work within time budgets); 4) Client relations (e.g., gains the confidence, respect and cooperation of clients); (5) Cooperation (e.g., demonstrates a positive and professional manner in working with personnel at all levels); (6) Work ethic (e.g., willing to work long hours and complete assigned tasks) |
Greenslade and Jimmieson (2007) | Field study | 112 nurses (Australia) | (1) Technical care (2) Non job specific behaviours (duties that were commonly conducted by nurses but were felt to be outside the scope of nursing practice) (3) Providing informational support provision of emotional support to patients and their families (4) The provision of emotional support to patients and their families coordination of care among unit members (5) Behaviours that support the organisation (ex., volunteering to assist on committees) (6) Behaviours that assist team members (interpersonal support) (7) Behaviours that assisted patients and their families (job-task support) (8) Coordination of care among unit members |
Hoffman and Woehr (2009) | Field study | 404 managers (USA) | (1) Technical skills (decision making, judgment, analysis, planning and organizing) (2) Leadership skills (performance management, coaching, idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, influencing others, persuasiveness) (3) Interpersonal skills (confrontation effectiveness, sensitivity, team building, communication skills) |
Molefe (2010) | Field study | 178 academics (South Africa) | (1) Knowledge (2) Organisational skills (3) Assessment procedures (4) Subject relevance (5) Utility of assignments (6) Student–lecturer relations (7) Communication skills |
Salgado et al. (2003) | Field study | 118 middle-level managers (Spain) | (1) Job knowledge (2) Efficiency (3) Problem-solving (4) Ability (5) Leadership (6) Job-adaptability (7) Interpersonal relationships (8) Level of aspiration (9) Initiative (10) Attitude |
Viswesvaran et al. (2005) | Literature review | – | (1) Administrative competence (2) Quality (4) Productivity (5) Job knowledge (6) Interpersonal competence (7) Effort (8) Leadership (9) Compliance/acceptance of authority (10) Communication competence |
Wang et al. (2008) | Field study | 168 supervisor-subordinate dyads (Republic of China) | (1) Provides first-class services to the customers (2) Satisfies all customers’ needs (3) Fulfills the requirements of the (4) Position (5) Interpersonal facilitation (6) Job dedication (7) Provides realistic suggestions for work improvements (8) Possesses the capability to adapt to different types of work (9) Tries to use different ways to solve problems during work (10) Does his/her best to avoid errors |
Hogan et al. (1998) | Field study | 214 entry level workers (USA) | (1) Work dedication (being accountable, following rules and procedures, listening to supervision) (2) Interpersonal facilitation (communication with and assisting coworkers) |
Field study | 139 managers (USA) 317 managers (Korea) | (1) Planning and organisation (2) Oral communication (3) Written communication (4) Leadership (5) Problem solving (6) Conscientiousness (7) Team work (8) Interpersonal and relational skills (9) Motivation (10) Conflict management/resolution (11) Information seeking (12) Persuasiveness (13) Listening (14) Creativity (15) Adaptability (16) Stress tolerance (17) Readiness to develop (18) Fairness (19) Emotion management (20) Cultural adaptability | |
Mumford et al. (2005) | Documentary study | 499 scientists obituaries | (1) Creativity (2) Innovation |
Dess and Shaw (2001) | Literature review | – | Strong network of relationships (having access to both information and resources for their employing organisation, attracting other high-performing workers, and maintaining strong network ties to external stakeholders) |
Sparrowe et al. (2001) | Field study | 190 employees in 38 work groups, from several types of organisations (USA) | (1) Social network centrality |
van Knippenberg et al. (2004) | Literature review | – | (1) Decision quality when working in groups (2) Creativity when working in groups (3) Innovation when working in groups |
Wright and Hobfoll (2004) | Field study | 50 Human service counselors (USA) | (1) Support (2) Goal emphasis (3) Team building (4) Work facilitation |
Wisecarver et al. (2007) | Field study | 188 active duty enlisted noncommissioned officers assigned to Special Forces (USA) | (1) Teaching others (2) Building effective relationships with indigenous people (3) Using and enhancing language skills (4) Planning and preparing for missions (5) Decision making (6) Confronting physical and environmental challenges (7) Navigating in the field (8) Being safety conscious (9) Administering first aid and responding to life-threatening situations (10) Managing administrative duties (11) Troubleshooting and solving problems (12) Handling interpersonal situations (13) Contributing to the team effort and morale (14) Displaying honesty and integrity (15) Showing initiative and effort |
Appendix 2
Task performance dimensions found after the literature review
Author | Task performance dimension | Definition |
|---|---|---|
Anderson (1984) Day and Silverman (1989) Williams and Hummert (1990) Blau (1993) Borman and Brush (1993) Salgado et al. (2003) Tett et al. (2003) Viswesvaran et al. (2005) Cheng et al. (2007) Greenslade and Jimmieson (2007) Wang et al. (2008) Chan and Schmitt (2009) Fein (2009) Hoffman and Woehr (2009) Ng and Feldman (2009) Van Woerkom and de Reuver (2009) Molefe (2010) | Job knowledge | Behaviours that reflect the degree to which individuals have the knowledge and abilities that are relevant to their job |
Day and Silverman (1989) Borman and Brush (1993) Tett et al. (2003) Salgado et al. (2003) Viswesvaran et al. (2005) Cheng et al. (2007) Greenslade and Jimmieson (2007) Wisecarver et al. (2007) Hoffman and Woehr (2009) Molefe (2010) | Organisation skills | Behaviours that reflect skills which are relevant to the organisation of work, such as planning and organizing, problem solving, monitoring and controlling resources and meeting deadlines in order to get the job done |
Williams and Hummert (1990) Blau (1993) Salgado et al. (2003) van Knippenberg et al. (2004) Conte and Gintoft (2005) Viswesvaran et al. (2005) Cheng et al. (2007) Wang et al. (2008) | Efficiency | Behaviours that reflect the degree to which individuals efficiently perform tasks that are central to their job |
Appendix 3
Contextual performance dimensions found after the literature review
Author | Contextual performance dimension | Definition |
|---|---|---|
Borman and Brush (1993) Borman and Motowidlo (1997) Coleman and Borman (1999) Borman et al. (2001) Viswesvaran et al. (2005) Wisecarver et al. (2007) Fein (2009) | Persistent effort (merged with personal characteristics) | Persistence to reach goals |
Anderson (1984) Day and Silverman (1989) Williams and Hummert (1990) Borman and Motowidlo (1997) Hogan et al. (1998) Coleman and Borman (1999) Borman et al. (2001) Wright and Hobfoll (2004) Cheng et al. (2007) Wisecarver et al. (2007) Greenslade and Jimmieson (2007) Chan and Schmitt (2009) Fein (2009) | Cooperation | Effectiveness in working with others Extra task execution Helping others |
Anderson (1984) Williams and Hummert (1990) Borman and Brush (1993) Borman and Motowidlo (1997) Hogan et al. (1998) Coleman and Borman (1999) Borman et al. (2001) Viswesvaran et al. (2005) Cheng et al. (2007) Greenslade and Jimmieson (2007) Fein (2009) Ng and Feldman (2009) | Organisational conscientiousness | Personal discipline (the extent to which individuals refrain from negative performance behaviours, such as excessive absenteeism and infractions of work rules and procedures) Compliance |
Borman and Brush (1993) Borman et al. (2001) Tett et al. (2003) Salgado et al. (2003) Viswesvaran et al. (2005) Cheng et al. (2007) Wisecarver et al. (2007) Wang et al. (2008) Ng and Feldman (2009) Chan and Schmitt (2009) Van Woerkom and de Reuver (2009) Mumford et al. (2005) | Personal characteristics (merged with persistent effort) | Initiative Motivation to perform, to learn (information seeking) and to work hard Creativity and innovation Adaptability Stress tolerance |
Day and Silverman (1989) Williams and Hummert (1990) Borman and Brush (1993) Hogan et al. (1998) Borman et al. (2001) Dess and Shaw (2001) Tett et al. (2003) Salgado et al. (2003) Viswesvaran et al. (2005) Wisecarver et al. (2007) Cheng et al. (2007) Chan and Schmitt (2009) Hoffman and Woehr (2009) Molefe (2010) | Interpersonal and relational skills | Communication skills—oral and written Conflict resolution Negotiation Influencing others Social network |
Appendix 4
Descriptive and reliability statistics for the 55 initial indicators
Item | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | 7. | 8. | 9. | 10. | 11. | 12. | 13. | 14. | 15. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | 6.25 | 6.29 | 6.19 | 4.87 | 5.82 | 5.73 | 5.98 | 4.27 | 5.48 | 5.50 | 5.18 | 4.80 | 5.12 | 6.33 | 6.21 |
SD | .918 | 1.009 | .941 | 1.413 | 1.320 | 1.073 | .951 | 1.864 | 1.454 | 1.370 | 1.363 | 1.733 | 1.298 | .897 | .939 |
Skewness | −1.611 | −2.163 | −1.443 | −.467 | −1.493 | −.741 | −1.242 | −.108 | −1.068 | −.968 | −.691 | −.338 | −.544 | −1.717 | −1.618 |
SE of skewness | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 |
Kurtosis | 3.688 | 6.195 | 2.878 | −.041 | 2.257 | .389 | 2.670 | −1.231 | .511 | .547 | .154 | −1.009 | .166 | 4.119 | 3.873 |
SE of Kurtosis | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 |
Item | 16. | 17. | 18. | 19. | 20. | 21. | 22. | 23. | 24. | 25. | 26. | 27. | 28. | 29. | 30. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | 4.83 | 4.23 | 5.22 | 3.77 | 5.02 | 5.36 | 4.64 | 5.21 | 2.79 | 5.98 | 4.98 | 5.39 | 5.60 | 5.15 | 5.84 |
SD | 1.375 | 1.791 | 1.279 | 1.654 | 1.466 | 1.169 | 1.342 | 1.133 | 1.449 | 1.053 | 1.664 | 1.176 | 1.145 | 1.447 | 1.570 |
Skewness | −.408 | −.115 | −.670 | .335 | −.703 | −.645 | −.323 | −.452 | .877 | −1.181 | −.594 | −.649 | −.904 | −.816 | −1.416 |
SE of skewness | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 |
Kurtosis | −.139 | −1.062 | .244 | −.870 | .131 | .433 | −.060 | .357 | .444 | 1.640 | −.589 | .508 | 1.031 | .291 | 1.154 |
SE of Kurtosis | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 |
Item | 31. | 32. | 33 | 34. | 35 | 36. | 37. | 38. | 39. | 40. | 41. | 42. | 43. | 44. | 45. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | 5.39 | 6.11 | 5.83 | 3.41 | 5.46 | 5.19 | 5.04 | 5.87 | 5.22 | 5.27 | 6.30 | 5.77 | 5.23 | 5.63 | 5.01 |
SD | 1.658 | 1.236 | 1.331 | 1.590 | 1.415 | 1.553 | 1.384 | 1.107 | 1.423 | 1.312 | 1.018 | 1.027 | 1.223 | 1.227 | 1.498 |
Skewness | −1.022 | −1.754 | −1.336 | .457 | −.964 | −.769 | −.742 | −1.156 | −.868 | −.839 | −1.888 | −.664 | −.651 | −1.118 | −.551 |
SE of skewness | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 |
Kurtosis | .230 | 3.264 | 1.645 | −.390 | .494 | −.173 | .363 | 1.817 | .557 | .629 | 4.482 | .211 | .369 | 1.334 | −.423 |
SE of Kurtosis | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 |
Item | 46. | 47. | 48. | 49. | 50. | 51. | 52. | 53. | 54 | 55. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | 4.92 | 6.00 | 5.54 | 5.09 | 5.09 | 4.60 | 3.46 | 4.65 | 5.50 | 4.95 |
SD | 1.408 | 1.106 | 1.096 | 1.851 | 1.354 | 1.444 | 1.350 | 1.232 | 1.254 | 1.466 |
Skewness | −.542 | −1.234 | −.901 | −.821 | −.684 | −.401 | −.038 | −.284 | −.909 | −.680 |
SE of skewness | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 | .073 |
Kurtosis | −.132 | 1.701 | 1.238 | −.565 | .309 | −.267 | −.462 | .373 | .976 | −.009 |
SE of Kurtosis | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 | .147 |
Reliability statistics for the initial 8 dimensions (55 items)
Initial dimensions | Number of items | Cronbach’a Alpha |
|---|---|---|
Job knowledge | 10 | .728 |
Organisational skills | 8 | .706 |
Efficiency | 6 | .531 |
Cooperation | 4 | .436 |
Personal characteristics | 7 | .657 |
Organisational conscientiousness | 6 | .589 |
Interpersonal and relational skills | 10 | .686 |
Persistent effort | 4 | .693 |
Appendix 5
1.1 Final JP Scale
1.1.1 Instructions
“In order to complete the following questionnaire, you must be employed for, at least, 6 months, in an organisation that has, leastways, four workers. Below are some statements regarding how you normally act in your job. When answering, consider the last 6 months to 1 year of work as a reference point. If any of the questions does not apply to your actions during this time, consider how you would normally act in your current job. ‘Organisation’ refers to the institution you work for. When you see the expression ‘other workers’, consider all the workers, regardless of their position in the organisation. Keep in mind that this questionnaire is completely anonymous and confidential and that there are no right nor wrong answers. Please indicate the best answer to each of the following statements, given that ‘1’ means ‘strongly disagree’, ‘2’ means’ disagree’, ‘3 ‘means’ somewhat disagree’, ‘4 ‘means ‘neither agree nor disagree’, ‘5’ means ‘somewhat agree’, ‘6 ‘means’ agree ‘and ‘7’ means ‘strongly agree’.”
Task performance | |
Job knowledge | 2. If I need to perform a task that I’m not familiar with, I seek for information that allows me to perform it better |
5. I don’t think I could execute my tasks effectively if I didn’t have a certain amount of experience | |
17. The way I perform the basic tasks required in my job is not always in agreement with what I’m capable of doing (R) | |
18. The way I perform the basic tasks required in my job corresponds completely to the performance that the organisation where I work asks from me | |
Organisational skills | 8. It is not always easy for me to perform tasks on time (R) |
9. When I have a deadline to perform a certain task, I always finish it on time | |
11. If I had to perform a task in conjunction with other workers, I would probably be responsible for the planning, organizing and monitorising of the work to be done | |
12. I always leave my tasks to the last minute (R) | |
13. I am always aware when there is a lack of the resources (material or human) needed for the efficient performance of the organisation | |
Efficiency | 19. Sometimes, I feel disappointed with my performance at work, because I know I could have done better |
20. I consider myself a fundamental worker to the organisation I work for, due to the high quality of my performance | |
24. Receiving feedback (from my subordinates, my colleagues, my supervisor or from the organisation) is fundamental in order for me to continue performing my duties with dedication (R) | |
Contextual performance | |
Persistent effort | 36. When something is not right at work, I don’t complain because I am afraid that others won’t agree with me (R) |
37. Usually, I take the initiative to give constructive feedback in order to improve the performance of other workers (subordinates, colleagues, supervisor or workgroups) | |
38. In the event the organisation did not provide the training that I consider necessary to perform my duties effectively, I would seek information from other sources | |
44. I’m still able to perform my duties effectively when I’m working under pressure | |
45. As soon as I arrive at work, I set aside all my personal problems, so that my performance is not harmed | |
Cooperation | 26. Usually, I dedicate less effort to work when performing a task in conjunction with other people (R) |
28. I am always willing to assist other workers from the organisation, even when I don’t have much time available | |
29. Usually, I also perform tasks that are not related to my specific duties | |
Organisational conscienciousness | 30. Frequently, I arrive late at work (R) |
31. It’s really difficult for me to miss work, even when I’m feeling sick | |
32. I would never adopt actions that could harm the well-being of the other workers | |
34. When I think that the goals of the organisation conflict with my personal goals, my dedication to work decreases (R) | |
35. I take my job really seriously, so I always comply with the rules and procedures imposed (by my supervisor or by the organisation), even when no one is around | |
Interpersonal and relational skills | 46. My communication skills are so good that I’m always able to capture everyone’s attention |
47. Communication inside organisations, even in workgroups, is fundamental so that people can perform their tasks effectively | |
49. When I write a message to others (other workers or students) I feel a certain difficulty in expressing what I’m thinking | |
52. When someone has a different opinion from mine, I usually convince them that my opinion is the best | |
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Carlos, V.S., Rodrigues, R.G. Development and Validation of a Self-Reported Measure of Job Performance. Soc Indic Res 126, 279–307 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-0883-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-0883-z