Developing the Psychological Strain Scales (PSS): Reliability, Validity, and Preliminary Hypothesis Tests

Abstract

Since its inception, the Strain Theory of Suicide has been tested and supported in a number of empirical studies. This social psychological theory can be employed as a complementary conceptualization to account for suicidal behaviors as well as mental disorders. However, the lack of consistent measurements of the strains limits the application of the theory in scientific research. Our research team has developed such scales for future testing of the Strain Theory of Suicide in a more systematic approach. For the initial items to measure the four strains (value, aspiration, deprivation, and coping), we solicited approximately 40 items for each strain with high face validity by about 30 fellow researchers. A preliminary examination of about 160 items for consistency and validity, with a sample of about 300 college students, yielded 20 consistent items for each of the four strain scales. Then, a second study was conducted at a different university with approximately 500 students to further streamline each of the four strain scales and test the validity of each with corresponding established scales and variables. As a result, 15 items were selected for each of the four Psychological Strain Scales (PSS). In correlation and multiple regression analyses, we found support for the hypotheses regarding the positive associations between psychological strains measured by the PSS and psychopathology including suicidal ideation. Follow up research with the new scales needs to be carried out in order to test the effects of psychological strains on suicide and mental disorders for various populations.

Appendix: Items Selected by Study One (20) and Study Two (15) in both English and Chinese

Value Strain

Item No.	Content
Value 1	I am often confused about what life means to me 生活的意义到底是什么, 我经常对这一问题感到困惑。
Value 2	I am unsure about what is right and wrong regarding some things in my daily life 生活中的许多事情我真不知道是对的还是错的。
Value 3	I don’t know why my thoughts are often different from others 不知道为什么我的想法经常和别人不一样。
Value 4	My parents and my best friends (peers) sometimes have different views on certain things, and I always find it difficult to deal with them 有时我真不知道应该听父母的话还是听好朋友或者同伴的意见。
Value 5	Between socialism and capitalism economies, I don’t know which is better for a society 社会主义和资本主义之间, 我真的不知道哪一个更好。
Value 6	I don’t know if God really exists 我对世上到底有没有神灵感到困惑。我真的不知道上帝到底存在不存在。
Value 7	Between democracy and totalitarianism, I don’t know which is good for every society 在民主和专制这两种社会制度之间, 我不知道哪一种更适合于大多数社会。
Value 8	I don’t know if women should have the same rights that men do 我不知道妇女是否应该与男性享有同样的权力。
Value 9	Between traditional and modern values, I don’t know what I should follow 在传统价值观和现代价值观之间, 我不知道我会倾向于哪个。
Value 10	Between chastity and sexual liberty, I don’t know what I should do 在节欲和纵欲之间, 我不知道我应该遵循什么。
Value 11	It will be a difficult decision to make about whether I should take care of my parents when they are too old to take care of themselves 当父母年老生活不能自理时, 我不知道是否有责任把他们照顾起来。
Value 12	I admire those who are leading a very simple life and not thinking too much about life 我真羡慕那些生活简单而无烦恼也不想太多的人。
Value 13	I don’t understand why some church members are not liked by the government 我不能理解为什么信教的人大多不被政府部门喜欢。
Value 14	I am always troubled by some conflicting ideas 我经常被一些矛盾的思想所折磨。
Value 15	I am not living in the way I want, and I feel bad about it 我并不是按照自己的想法在生活, 这让我很痛苦。
Value 16	It is often difficult for me to make a decision between two choices 经常很难在两个或多个选择中做决定。
Value 17	Between career and family, I don’t know which is more important to me我不知道事业和家庭哪个更重要。
Value 18	It is difficult to decide if I should get more education 究竟要不要接受更多的教育, 我很难选择。
Value 19	In dating and marriage, I don’t know if I should decide my own or listen to my parents 关于恋爱结婚, 我不知道应该听长辈的还是应该自己作主。
Value 20	The traditional values are always opposite to what I have learned from school, I cannot make a choice what to believe 中国传统文化中有很多与学校所学的知识是互相矛盾的, 我难以从中做出选择。

1. Items value 4, 11, 13, 15, and 18 are deleted from the final 15 item value scale

Aspiration Strain

Item No.	Content
Aspiration 1	There are certain things in my life I can never have, although I really want them 生活中的很多东西, 尽管我很想得到, 但却是不可能的。
Aspiration 2	Society is not fair to me 我认为社会对我不公平。
Aspiration 3	I wish I had a better job now, but I cannot realize it according to some reasons 我希望我的工作比现在的要好。但是由于种种原因, 我这个愿望实现不了。
Aspiration 4	I wish I were living in a better family, but I cannot realize it according to some reasons 我希望我的家庭比现在的要好, 但是由于种种原因, 我这个愿望实现不了。
Aspiration 5	I wish I had a chance to get more education, but I cannot realize it according to some reasons 我希望我有机会上更多的学, 接受更多的教育, 但是由于种种原因, 我这个愿望实现不了。
Aspiration 6	I wish I had more power in my life, but I cannot realize it according to some reasons 我希望我很有权势。但由于种种原因, 我现在什么都左右不了。
Aspiration 7	Many people have got in the way of my success 很多人在我成功的道路上设置障碍。
Aspiration 8	My life quality is not as good as it was before 我现在的生活质量远不如从前。
Aspiration 9	I wish I could change my current living condition, but I cannot 我很渴望改变目前的生活状态, 但却无能为力。
Aspiration 10	I wish I could achieve the highest goal in my life, but I cannot 我渴望实现自我, 但却无能为力。
Aspiration 11	I wish I could be successful, but there are too many obstacles in my life 我渴望成功, 但生活中却存在太多的障碍。
Aspiration 12	There are many things I want to do but no time and energy to do 我想做的事情总是没有条件没有时间去做。
Aspiration 13	I want to make more money, but there is not an opportunity 我想挣更多的钱, 但没有机会。
Aspiration 14	I used to be successful, but now I am a failure 我曾经很成功, 现在很失败。
Aspiration 15	I wish my living environment was clean, but we have now very serious pollution problems 我希望能有更清新整洁的环境, 但污染却很严重。
Aspiration 16	I wish I had fewer burdens in my life, but I have to deal with so many responsibilities every day 我希望自己的生活各方面能更轻松一点, 但却很沉重紧张。
Aspiration 17	I wish I lived in a place with sense of security, but my environment is not safe at all 我希望生活的环境有良好的治安, 但是现在却生活在不安全的环境中。
Aspiration 18	As of now I have not obtained many things really I wanted 回首往事, 许多想得到的东西没得到。
Aspiration 19	In comparison with others, I am totally a loser 与其他人比, 我感觉自己太失败了。
Aspiration 20	I wish I could be respected by others, but people around me always look down upon me 我希望得到别人的尊重, 但总是被别人看不起。

1. Items aspiration 1, 2, 5, 6, and 14 are deleted from the final 15 item aspiration scale

Deprivation Strain

Item No.	Content
Deprivation 1	Compared to others in my neighborhood (village), I am a poor person 跟同村或同社区的其他人相比, 我是一个穷人。
Deprivation 2	Compared to other families in my community, my family is poor. 跟同村或同社区的其他家庭相比, 我家很穷。
Deprivation 3	My life is worse than others 我比别人生活得差。
Deprivation 4	I am very angry about the society that allows so many people to get rich so easily 一想到那么多人轻而易举的成了暴发户, 轻而易举的获得了大量财富, 我就很来气。
Deprivation 5	I hate those rich people 我恨那些富人。
Deprivation 6	I believe I am good enough, but I am not satisfied with the treatment from others 我应该是够好的了, 但我还是不满意别人对待我的方式。
Deprivation 7	My family does not have the money to support me to go to school 我家人没有钱供我上学。
Deprivation 8	I am not able to date (marry) the person I love, because my parents don’t like him/her 我不能与我自己喜欢的那位结婚或恋爱, 因为我的家人不喜欢。
Deprivation 9	I cannot run for a political office because of the lack of resources 由于资源不够, 我不能竞选我期望的职位。
Deprivation 10	I cannot go to church as much as people around me can, because I am poor 因为我很穷, 所以我不能像其他人那样去教会活动。
Deprivation 11	The world is not as fair to me as it is to others 这个世界对我不像对其他人那样公平。
Deprivation 12	I have the same qualities as some of my colleagues, but they are paid much more than I am 我跟别人能力差不多, 但是他们的工资要比我的高好多。
Deprivation 13	I always compare myself with those who are better than I am 我常常跟那些比我过的好的人相比。
Deprivation 14	I admire others’ lives, because they are leading better lives than I am 我很羡慕别人的生活, 觉得别人都比我过的好。
Deprivation 15	People around me are living in better apartments or houses 周围的大多数人都比我住得好。
Deprivation 16	Most people around me have better and more comfortable working environment 周围大多数人都比我工作舒适。
Deprivation 17	I work hard and my performance is excellent, but I am not appreciated and promoted as are others who did not do their jobs so good 我工作很努力很出色, 却始终得不到提升;一些无所事事的人却得到重用。
Deprivation 18	My parents, spouse, or children are not as good as others 我的父母或配偶或子女没有别人家的好。
Deprivation 19	Compared to others, it is more difficult for me to make money 与别人相比, 我认为我挣钱更辛苦。
Deprivation 20	I have worked too much and gained too little 我认为自己付出了太多, 但收获太少。

1. Items deprivation 6, 7, 10, 11, and 18 are deleted from the final 15 item deprivation scale

Coping Strain

Item No.	Content
Coping 1	When I confront a crisis in life, I usually plan steps to successfully solve the problem 有危机或突发事件时, 我总会一步一步地解决事情。
Coping 2	When I encounter a problem at work, I usually consult with my family or friends 在单位或学校遇到难处时, 我常常会咨询我的家人或朋友。
Coping 3	Face is so important to me that I will do everything to protect my public image, even suicide 面子对我来讲太重要了, 为了保护面子我能豁出一切, 甚至生命。
Coping 4	I cannot handle too many things at the same time 我没有同时处理很多事情的本事。
Coping 5	To me, death is the solution to all problems that cannot be solved 我认为死是解决所有无法解决的问题的最好方式。
Coping 6	When confronted with some crisis, my head usually turns blank 遇到危机时, 我的头脑会一片空白, 然后会不知所措。
Coping 7	I always to do things as I like, without thinking of the consequence 常常只按自己想的做, 且不考虑后果。
Coping 8	Confronting others, I always have to take the upper hand 如果与人发生争吵, 我一定要占上风。
Coping 9	I don’t like to ask for the help of others when I have difficulties 遇到困难的时候, 不愿意去寻求他人的帮助。
Coping 10	Everything is determined by fate, and I cannot make any changes 一切都是上天注定, 我无法改变现状。
Coping 11	I cannot forget unpleasant experiences, and the more I think, the worse my feelings are 我无法忘记不愉快的事, 而且会越想越难过。
Coping 12	I believe everything is double sided and I always try to see the positive side of things 相信事物有两面性, 凡事有弊有利, 尽量看到事情好的一面, 保持乐观的态度。
Coping 13	In difficulty, I often do something else to distract my attention, such as watching TV, reading, listening to music, etc 面对困境, 我会找一些事情做, 如看电视、看书、听音乐, 即使很无聊的事, 至少让自己有事做。
Coping 14	I resort to religion to get help 面对困难我经常在心里祈祷, 希望上天能够帮助我。
Coping 15	Even with small problems, I sometimes feel low and cannot get going 即使面对一些小问题, 也会情绪低落, 做什么都打不起精神。
Coping 16	When I have problems, I feel difficult to fall asleep and lose my appetite 一遇到困难, 就会出失眠、胃口不好等情况。
Coping 17	In difficulty, I often smoke, drink, take medication, and eat to let myself feel better 我通过吸烟、喝酒、吃药、吃东西来解除烦恼。
Coping 18	When I have difficulties in what I am doing, I usually give up the task 遇到困难就会自暴自弃, 感觉没有希望。
Coping 19	When I have a problem, I always stay alone and away from others 遇到困难就会把自己孤立起来, 远离众人。
Coping 20	In dealing with things, I often feel out of control and not able to catch up 我常常会感到措手不及、手忙脚乱。

1. Items coping 1, 2, 12, 13 and 14 are reversely coded and deleted from the final 15 item coping scale