Abstract
Stranger harassment is a prevalent experience for many women but is often trivialized as a social problem (Kearl 2014; Vera-Gray 2016). As a result, there is a lack of knowledge related to understanding women’s lived experiences of stranger harassment. Our study attends to this gap in the literature by examining the relation between experiences of stranger/street harassment and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity among 367 young adult U.S. women. We also examined novel explanatory (i.e., self-blame, shame, and fear of rape), risk (adherence to traditional feminine norms of sweet and nice and sexual fidelity), and resiliency (feminist identification) factors in predicting PTSD symptom severity via a moderated mediation model. We found that stranger harassment was both directly and indirectly related to PTSD symptom severity via more self-blame, greater shame, and more fear of rape along three dimensions—taking rape precautions, fear of men, and safety concerns. In addition, we found a significant conditional indirect effect, in which the indirect effect of stranger harassment on PTSD symptom severity via shame was stronger among women with higher levels of sexual fidelity. Furthermore, the conditional indirect effect of stranger harassment on PTSD symptom severity via self-blame was contingent on feminist identification such that these relations were stronger among women with lower levels of feminist identification. Our results underscore the potential negative impact of stranger harassment experiences on women’s mental health and the importance of targeting self-blame, shame, fear, gender-related norms, and feminist attitudes in intervention strategies.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Arata, C. M. (1999). Coping with rape: The roles of prior sexual abuse and attributions of blame. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 62–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626099014001004.
Arata, C. M., & Burkhart, B. R. (1996). Post-traumatic stress disorder among college student victims of acquaintance assault. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 8, 79–92. https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v08n01_06.
Avina, C., & O’Donohue, W. (2002). Sexual harassment and PTSD: Is sexual harassment diagnosable trauma? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 69–75. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014387429057.
Ayres, M. M., Friedman, C. K., & Leaper, C. (2009). Individual and situational factors related to young women’s likelihood of confronting sexism in their everyday lives. Sex Roles, 61, 449–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9635-3.
Bandermann, K. M., & Szymanski, D. M. (2014). Exploring coping mediators between heterosexist oppression and posttraumatic stress symptoms among lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1, 213–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000044.
Beck, J. G., McNiff, J., Clapp, J. D., Olsen, S. A., Avery, M. L., & Hagewood, J. H. (2011). Exploring negative emotion in women experiencing intimate partner violence: Shame, guilt, and PTSD. Behavior Therapy, 42, 740–750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2011.04.001.
Benetti-McQuoid, J., & Bursik, K. (2005). Individual differences in experiences of and responses to guilt and shame: Examining the lenses of gender and gender role. Sex Roles, 53, 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-4287-4.
Berkowitz, A. D. (2002). Fostering men's responsibility for preventing sexual assault. In P. A. Schewe (Ed.), Preventing violence in relationships: Interventions across the life span (pp. 163–196). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10455-007.
Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM−5 (PCL−5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28, 489−498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22059.
Bolger, N., Davis, A., & Rafaeli, E. (2003). Diary methods: Capturing life as it is lived. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 579–616. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145030.
Bowman, C. G. (1993). Street harassment and the informal ghettoization of women. Harvard Law Review, 106, 517–580. https://doi.org/10.2307/1341656.
Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Rose, S. (2000). Fear, helplessness, and horror in posttraumatic stress disorder: Investigating DSM-IV criterion A2 in victims of violent crime. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 499–509. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007741526169.
Brown, L. S. (1994). Subversive dialogues: Theory in feminist therapy. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Brown, L. S. (2004). Feminist paradigms of trauma treatment. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 41, 464–471. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-3204.41.4.464.
Bryant-Davis, T., & Ocampo, C. (2005). Racist incident–based trauma. The Counseling Psychologist, 33, 479–500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000005276465.
Budden, A. (2009). The role of shame in posttraumatic stress disorder: A proposal for a socio-emotional model for DSM-V. Social Science & Medicine, 69, 1032–1039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.07.032.
Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.217.
Campbell, R., Dworkin, E., & Cabral, G. (2009). An ecological model of the impact of sexual assault on women's mental health. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 10, 225–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838009334456.
Charles, S. T., & Carstensen, L. L. (2007). Emotion regulation and aging. In J. J. Bross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 307–327). New York: Guilford.
Cohen, J. N. (2008). Using feminist, emotion-focused, and developmental approaches to enhance cognitive-behavioral therapies for posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood sexual abuse. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 45, 227–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-3204.45.2.227.
Cowan, G. (2000). Women's hostility toward women and rape and sexual harassment myths. Violence Against Women, 6, 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778010022181822.
Curtin, N., Ward, L. M., Merriwether, A., & Caruthers, A. (2011). Femininity ideology and sexual health in young women: A focus on sexual knowledge, embodiment, and agency. International Journal of Sexual Health, 23, 48–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2010.524694.
Dansky, B. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (1997). The effects of sexual harassment. In W. O’Donohue (Ed.), Sexual harassment: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 152–174). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Davidson, M. M., Gervais, S. J., & Sherd, L. W. (2015). The ripple effects of stranger harassment on objectification of self and others. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39, 53–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313514371.
Davidson, M. M., Butchko, M. S., Robbins, K., Sherd, L. W., & Gervais, S. J. (2016). The mediating role of perceived safety on street harassment and anxiety. Psychology of Violence, 6, 553–561. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039970.
Davis, D. E. (1994). The harm that has no name: Street harassment, embodiment, and African American women. UCLA Women’s Law Journal, 4, 133–178.
DeCou, C. R., Cole, T. T., Lynch, S. M., Wong, M. M., & Matthews, K. C. (2017). Assault-related shame mediates the association between negative social reactions to disclosure of sexual assault and psychological distress. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9, 166–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000186.
DeJudicibus, M., & McCabe, M. P. (2001). Blaming the target of sexual harassment: Impact of gender role, sexist attitudes, and work role. Sex Roles, 44, 401–417. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011926027920.
Diehl, M., Chui, H., Hay, E. L., Lumley, M. A., Grühn, D., & Labouvie-Vief, G. (2014). Change in coping and defense mechanisms across adulthood: Longitudinal findings in a European American sample. Developmental Psychology, 50, 634–648. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033619.
Duncan, L. E. (1999). Motivation for collective action: Group consciousness as mediator of personality, life experiences, and women’s rights activism. Political Psychology, 20, 611–635. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00159.
Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (1999). Cognitive factors involved in the onset and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 809–829. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00181-8.
Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2001). A prospective investigation of the role of cognitive factors in persistent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 1063–1084. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00088-7.
Dworkin, E. R., Gilmore, A. K., Bedard-Gilligan, M., Lehavot, K., Guttmannova, K., & Kaysen, D. (2018). Predicting PTSD severity from experiences of trauma and heterosexism in lesbian and bisexual women: A longitudinal study of cognitive mediators. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65, 324–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000287.
Efthim, P. W., Kenny, M. E., & Mahalik, J. R. (2001). Gender role stress in relation to shame, guilt, and externalization. Journal of Counseling & Development, 79, 430–438. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2001.tb01990.x.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00123-0.
Fairchild, K. (2010). Context effects on women’s perceptions of stranger harassment. Sexuality & Culture, 14, 191–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-010-9070-1.
Fairchild, K., & Rudman, L. A. (2008). Everyday stranger harassment and women’s objectification. Social Justice Research, 21, 338–357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-008-0073-0.
Feiring, C., & Taska, L. S. (2005). The persistence of shame following sexual abuse: A longitudinal look at risk and recovery. Child Maltreatment, 10, 337–349. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559505276686.
Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fileborn, B., & Vera-Gray, F. (2017). “I want to be able to walk the street without fear”: Transforming justice for street harassment. Feminist Legal Stutides, 25, 203–227.
Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual harassment: Theoretical and psychometric advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 425–445. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1704_2.
Foster, M. D. (2000). Positive and negative responses to personal discrimination: Does coping make a difference? The Journal of Social Psychology, 140, 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540009600448.
Frazier, P. A. (1990). Victim attributions and post-rape trauma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 298–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.298.
Frazier, P. A. (2000). The role of attributions and perceived control in recovery from rape. Journal of Personal & Interpersonal Loss, 5, 203–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/10811440008409753.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.
Gefter, J. R., Bankoff, S. M., Valentine, S. E., Rood, B. A., & Pantalone, D. W. (2013). Feminist beliefs associated with young women's recovery from male-perpetrated abuse. Women & Therapy, 36, 332–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2013.799987.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation and conditional process analysis: A regression based approach. New York: Guilford Press.
Hickman, S. E., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (1997). College women's fears and precautionary behaviors relating to acquaintance rape and stranger rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 527–547. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00129.x.
Ho, I. K., Dinh, K. T., Bellefontaine, S. A., & Irving, A. L. (2012). Sexual harassment and posttraumatic stress symptoms among Asian and white women. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 21, 95–113.
Holland, E., Koval, P., Stratemeyer, M., Thomson, F., & Haslam, N. (2017). Sexual objectification in women's daily lives: A smartphone ecological momentary assessment study. British Journal of Social Psychology, 56, 314–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12152.
Holmes, S. C., Facemire, V. C., & DaFonseca, A. M. (2016). Expanding criterion a for posttraumatic stress disorder: Considering the deleterious impact of oppression. Traumatology, 22, 314–321. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000104.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1979). Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: Inquiries into depression and rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1798–1809. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1798.
Jensen, I. W., & Gutek, B. A. (1982). Attributions and assignment of responsibility in sexual harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 38, 121–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1982.tb01914.x.
Kearl, H. (2014). Unsafe and harassed in public spaces: A national street harassment report. Retrieved from http://www.stopstreet harassment.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/2014-National-SSH-StreetHarassment-Report.pdf
Kenig, S., & Ryan, J. (1986). Sex differences in levels of tolerance and attribution of blame for sexual harassment on a university campus. Sex Roles, 15, 535–549. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00288230.
Kissling, E. A. (1991). Street harassment: The language of sexual terrorism. Discourse & Society, 2, 451–460. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926591002004006.
Klonis, S., Endo, J., Crosby, F., & Worell, J. (1997). Feminism as life raft. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 333–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00117.x.
Koss, M. P., Figueredo, A. J., & Prince, R. J. (2002). Cognitive mediation of rape's mental, physical and social health impact: Tests of four models in cross-sectional data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 926–941. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.70.4.926.
La Bash, H., & Papa, A. (2014). Shame and PTSD symptoms. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Tesearch, Practice, and Policy, 6, 159–166. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032637.
Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1997). Discrimination against women: Prevalence, consequences, remedies. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Larsen, S. E., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (2010). PTSD symptoms and sexual harassment: The role of attributions and perceived control. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 2555–2567. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510388284.
Leaper, C., & Arias, D. M. (2011). College women’s feminist identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for coping with sexism. Sex Roles, 64, 475–490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9936-1.
Lee, D. A., Scragg, P., & Turner, S. (2001). The role of shame and guilt in traumatic events: A clinical model of shame-based and guilt-based PTSD. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74, 451–466. https://doi.org/10.1348/000711201161109.
Lenton, R., Smith, M. D., Fox, J., & Morra, N. (1999). Sexual harassment in public places: Experiences of Canadian women. Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne de Sociologie, 36, 517–540. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-618X.1999.tb00962.x.
Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths. In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 133–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00448.x.
Macmillan, R., Nierobisz, A., & Welsh, S. (2000). Experiencing the streets: Harassment and perceptions of safety among women. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 37, 306–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427800037003003.
Mahalik, J. R., Morray, E., Coonerty-Femiano, A., Ludlow, L. H., Slattery, S. M., & Smiler, A. (2005). Development of the conformity to feminine norms inventory. Sex Roles, 52, 417–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-3709-7.
Malovich, N. J., & Stake, J. E. (1990). Sexual harassment on campus. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1990.tb00005.x.
Miles−McLean, H., Liss, M., Erchull, M. J., Robertson, C. M., Hagerman, C., Gnoleba, M. A., … Papp, L. J. (2015). "Stop looking at me!" Interpersonal sexual objectification as a source of insidious trauma. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39, 363−374. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684314561018
O'Connor, B. P. (2000). SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer's MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instrumentation, and Computers, 32, 396–402.
Palmieri, P. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (2005). Confirmatory factor analysis of posttraumatic stress symptoms in sexually harassed women. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 657–666. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20074.
Parent, M. C. (2013). Handling item-level missing data: Simpler is just as good. The Counseling Psychologist, 41, 568–600. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000012445176.
Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2010). Confirmatory factor analysis of the conformity to feminine norms inventory and development of an abbreviated version: The CFNI-45. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01545.x.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879.
Rederstorff, J. C., Buchanan, N. T., & Settles, I. H. (2007). The moderating roles of race and gender-role attitudes in the relationship between sexual harassment and psychological well-being. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 50–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00330.x.
Riger, S., & Gordon, M. T. (1981). The fear of rape: A study in social control. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 71–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1981.tb01071.x.
Robinson, J. L., & Rubin, L. J. (2016). Homonegative microaggressions and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 20, 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2015.1066729.
Root, M. P. (1992). Reconstructing the impact of trauma on personality. In L. S. Brown & M. Ballou (Eds.), Personality and psychopathology: Feminist reappraisals (pp. 229–265). New York: Guilford Press.
Root, M. P. (1996). Women of color and traumatic stress in "domestic captivity": Gender and race as disempowering statuses. In A. J. Marsella, M. J. Friedman, E. T. Gerrity, & R. M. Scurfield (Eds.), Ethnocultural aspects of posttraumatic stress disorder: Issues, research, and clinical applications (pp. 363–387). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10555-014.
Rosenthal, M. N., Smidt, A. M., & Freyd, J. J. (2016). Still second class: Sexual harassment of graduate students. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40, 364–377. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316644838.
Schewe, P. A. (2002). Preventing violence in relationships: Interventions across the life span. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10455-007.
Senn, C. Y., & Dzinas, K. (1996). Measuring fear of rape: A new scale. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 28, 141–144. https://doi.org/10.1037/0008-400X.28.2.141.
Stockdale, M. S., Logan, T., & Weston, R. (2009). Sexual harassment and posttraumatic stress disorder: Damages beyond prior abuse. Law and Human Behavior, 33, 405–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-008-9162-8.
Szymanski, D. M. (2004). Relations among dimensions of feminism and internalized heterosexism in lesbians and bisexual women. Sex Roles, 51, 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000037759.33014.55.
Szymanski, D. M., & Balsam, K. F. (2011). Insidious trauma: Examining the relationship between heterosexism and lesbians' PTSD symptoms. Traumatology, 17, 4–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765609358464.
Szymanski, D. M., & Owens, G. P. (2009). Group-level coping as a moderator between heterosexism and sexism and psychological distress in sexual minority women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 197–205. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01489.x.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Ullman, S. E., & Filipas, H. H. (2001). Predictors of PTSD symptom severity and social reactions in sexual assault victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 369–389. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011125220522.
Ullman, S. E., Filipas, H. H., Townsend, S. M., & Starzynski, L. L. (2007). Psychosocial correlates of PTSD symptom severity in sexual assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 821–831. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20290.
Vera-Gray, F. (2016). Men's intrusion, women's embodiment: A critical analysis of street harassment [Kindle Fire version]. Retrieved from Amazon.com
Vidal, M. E., & Petrak, J. (2007). Shame and adult sexual assault: A study with a group of female survivors recruited from an East London population. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 22, 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681990600784143.
Warr, M. (1985). Fear of rape among urban women. Social Problems, 32, 238–250. https://doi.org/10.2307/800684.
Watson, L. B., DeBlaere, C., Langrehr, K. J., Zelaya, D. G., & Flores, M. J. (2016). The influence of multiple oppressions on women of color's experiences with insidious trauma. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63, 656–667. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000165.
Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Retrieved from http://www.ptsd.va.gov.
Wei, M., Alvarez, A. N., Ku, T. Y., Russell, D. W., & Bonett, D. G. (2010). Development and validation of a coping with discrimination scale: Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 328–344. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019969.
Weiss, K. G. (2010). Too ashamed to report: Deconstructing the shame of sexual victimization. Feminist Criminology, 5, 286–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085110376343.
Weston, R., & Gore, P. A. (2006). A brief guide to structural equation modeling. The Counseling Psychologist, 34, 719–751. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006286345.
Wigderson, S., & Katz, J. (2015). Feminine ideology and sexual assault: Are more traditional college women at greater risk? Violence Against Women, 21, 616–631. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215573333.
Willness, C. R., Steel, P., & Lee, K. (2007). A meta-analysis of the antecedents and consequences of workplace sexual harassment. Personnel Psychology, 60, 127–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00067.x.
Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34, 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127.
Yoder, J. D., Snell, A. F., & Tobias, A. (2012). Balancing multicultural competence with social justice: Feminist beliefs and optimal psychological functioning. The Counseling Psychologist, 40, 1101–1132. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000011426296.
Acknowledgements
This research was completed as part of the first author’s thesis for M.A. in Psychology at the University of Tennessee.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Informed Consent
The research involved human participants and included an informed consent that was approved by the University of Tennessee’s Institutional Review Board.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 18 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Carretta, R.F., Szymanski, D.M. Stranger Harassment and PTSD Symptoms: Roles of Self-Blame, Shame, Fear, Feminine Norms, and Feminism. Sex Roles 82, 525–540 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01073-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01073-5