Abstract
The present study aimed to examine the relationships over time between television viewing (music and tween TV) and boys’ endorsement of sexualized gender roles, that is, views of women as sex objects and men as sexually dominant, as well as a tendency to objectify women’s bodies. As an additional question, we were interested in how parental socialization to gender roles related to these pathways. A sample of 496 Belgian boys aged 11.18 years (SD = 1.06, range = 9–13), participated in a longitudinal study and completed measures three times at 6-month intervals. Findings revealed that music TV was associated with increases in views of men as sexually dominant. Tween TV was associated with increases in views of women as sex objects, which in turn was associated with increased objectification of women’s bodies among adolescents who experienced high levels of gender-typical socialization from their parents. These findings suggest that media exposure among early adolescent boys may contribute to the development of sexually objectifying attitudes toward women. In addition, they highlight the critical role of parents in modulating the effect of media exposure and suggest the usefulness of engaging parents in interventions aiming to decrease these deleterious effects.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Annenberg Media Exposure Research Group. (2008). Linking measures of media exposure to sexual cognitions and behaviors: A review. Communication Methods and Measures, 2, 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312450802063180.
Arndorfer, C. L., & Stormshak, E. A. (2008). Same-sex versus other-sex best friendship in early adolescence: Longitudinal predictors of antisocial behavior throughout adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 1059–1070. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9311-x.
Aubrey, J. S. (2006). Effects of sexually objectifying media on self-objectification and body surveillance in undergraduates: Results of a 2-year panel study. Journal of Communication, 56, 366–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00024.x.
Aubrey, J. S., & Frisby, C. M. (2011). Sexual objectification in music videos: A content analysis comparing gender and genre. Mass Communication and Society, 14, 475–501. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2010.513468.
Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 121–154). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88, 354–364. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.88.4.354.
Bond, B. J., & Drogos, K. L. (2014). Sex on the shore: Wishful identification and parasocial relationships as mediators in the relationship between Jersey Shore exposure and emerging adults' sexual attitudes and behaviors. Media Psychology, 17, 102–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2013.872039.
Bos, H. M., Picavet, C., & Sandfort, T. G. (2012). Ethnicity, gender socialization, and children’s attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43, 1082–1094. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022111420146.
Brown, J. D., & Bobkowski, P. S. (2011). Older and newer media: Patterns of use and effects on adolescents' health and well-being. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 95–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00717.x.
Brown, J. D., Halpern, C. T., & L’Engle, K. L. (2005). Mass media as a sexual super peer for early maturing girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 420–427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.06.003.
Calogero, R. M., & Thompson, J. K. (2010). Gender and body image. In J. C. Chrisler & D. M. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 153–184). New York: Springer.
Collins, W. A., Welsh, D. P., & Furman, W. (2009). Adolescent romantic relationships. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 631–652. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163459.
Driesmans, K., Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2015). Playing a videogame with a sexualized female character increases adolescents' rape myth acceptance and tolerance toward sexual harassment. Games for Health Journal, 4, 91–94. https://doi.org/10.1089/g4h.2014.0055.
Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2001). Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37, 451–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.37.4.451.
Elsaesser, C., Russell, B., Ohannessian, C. M., & Patton, D. (2017). Parenting in a digital age: A review of parents' role in preventing adolescent cyberbullying. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 35, 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.06.004.
Epstein, M., & Ward, L. M. (2011). Exploring parent-adolescent communication about gender: Results from adolescent and emerging adult samples. Sex Roles, 65, 108–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9975-7.
Farquhar, J. C., & Wasylkiw, L. (2007). Media images of men: Trends and consequences of body conceptualization. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8, 145–160. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.8.3.145.
Flynn, M. A., Park, S. Y., Morin, D. T., & Stana, A. (2015). Anything but real: Body idealization and objectification of MTV docusoap characters. Sex Roles, 72, 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0464-2.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T.-A. (1997). Objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.
Garcia, R. L., Earnshaw, V. A., & Quinn, D. M. (2016). Objectification in action: Self-and other-objectification in mixed-sex interpersonal interactions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40, 213–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315614966.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1980). The mainstreaming of America: Violence profile no. 11. Journal of Communication, 30, 10–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1980.tb01987.x.
Gerding, A., & Signorielli, N. (2014). Gender roles in tween television programming: A content analysis of two genres. Sex Roles, 70, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0330-z.
Gondoli, D. M., Corning, A. F., Blodgett Salafia, E. H., Bucchianeri, M. M., & Fitzsimmons, E. E. (2011). Heterosocial involvement, peer pressure for thinness, and body dissatisfaction among young adolescent girls. Body Image, 8, 143–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.12.005.
Graff, K. A., Murnen, S. K., & Krause, A. K. (2013). Low-cut shirts and high-heeled shoes: Increased sexualization across time in magazine depictions of girls. Sex Roles, 69, 571–582. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0321-0.
Gurung, R. A., & Chrouser, C. J. (2007). Predicting objectification: Do provocative clothing and observer characteristics matter? Sex Roles, 57, 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9219-z.
Hargreaves, D. A., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). Female “thin ideal” media images and boys' attitudes toward girls. Sex Roles, 49, 539–544. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025841008820.
Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Publications.
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6, 53–60. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254742561_Structural_Equation_Modeling_Guidelines_for_Determining_Model_Fit.
Jordan, A. B. (2004). The role of media in children’s development: An ecological perspective. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 25, 196–206.
Kågesten, A., Gibbs, S., Blum, R. W., Moreau, C., Chandra-Mouli, V., Herbert, A., & Amin, A. (2016). Understanding factors that shape gender attitudes in early adolescence globally: A mixed-methods systematic review. PLoS One, 11, e0157805. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157805.
Kim, J. L., Lynn Sorsoli, C., Collins, K., Zylbergold, B. A., Schooler, D., & Tolman, D. L. (2007). From sex to sexuality: Exposing the heterosexual script on primetime network television. Journal of Sex Research, 44, 145–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490701263660.
Kirsch, A. C., & Murnen, S. K. (2015). “Hot” girls and “cool dudes”: Examining the prevalence of the heterosexual script in American children’s television media. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 4, 18–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000017.
Krayer, A., Ingledew, D. K., & Iphofen, R. (2008). Social comparison and body image in adolescence: A grounded theory approach. Health Education Research, 23, 892–903. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cym076.
Mares, M. L., Braun, M. T., & Hernandez, P. (2012). Pessimism and anxiety: Effects of tween sitcoms on expectations and feelings about peer relationships in school. Media Psychology, 15, 121–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2012.664762.
Martin, K. A., & Kazyak, E. (2009). Hetero-romantic love and heterosexiness in children's G-rated films. Gender & Society, 23, 315–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243209335635.
Martin, C. L., Ruble, D. N., & Szkrybalo, J. (2002). Cognitive theories of early gender development. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 903–933. https://doi.org/10.1037/00332909.128.6.903.
McDade-Montez, E., Wallander, J., & Cameron, L. (2017). Sexualization in US Latina and White girls’ preferred children’s television programs. Sex Roles, 77, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0692-0.
McDonald, D. G. (2009). Media use and the social environment. In R. L. Nabi & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), Media processes and effects (pp. 251–268). Los Angeles: Sage.
Moradi, B., & Huang, Y. P. (2008). Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 377–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00452.x.
Murnen, S. K., & Byrne, D. (1991). Hyperfemininity: Measurement and initial validation of the construct. The Journal of Sex Research, 28, 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499109551620.
Nabi, R. L., Biely, E. N., Morgan, S. J., & Stitt, C. R. (2003). Reality-based television programming and the psychology of its appeal. Media Psychology, 5, 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532785XMEP0504_01.
Nikken, P., & de Graaf, H. (2013). Reciprocal relationships between friends’ and parental mediation of adolescents’ media use and their sexual attitudes and behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 1696–1707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9873-5.
Noll, S. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). A mediational model linking self-objectification, body shame, and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 623–636. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00181.x.
Parkes, A., Wight, D., Hunt, K., Henderson, M., & Sargent, J. (2013). Are sexual media exposure, parental restrictions on media use and co-viewing TV and DVDs with parents and friends associated with teenagers' early sexual behaviour? Journal of Adolescence, 36, 1121–1133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.08.019.
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2007). Adolescents’ exposure to a sexualized media environment and their notions of women as sex objects. Sex Roles, 56, 381–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9176-y.
Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2009). A longitudinal investigation of peer sexual harassment victimization in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 1173–1188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.01.011.
Petersen, A. C., Crockett, L., Richards, M., & Boxer, A. (1988). A self-report measure of pubertal status: Reliability, validity, and initial norms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17, 117–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9720-0.
Reinecke, L., & Oliver, M. B. (2017). Media use and well-being. Status quo and open questions. In L. Reinecke & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of media use and well-being. International perspectives on theory and research on positive media effects (pp. 3–13). New York: Routledge.
Renold, E. (2004). ‘Other’ boys: Negotiating non-hegemonic masculinities in the primary school. Gender and Education, 16, 247–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250310001690609.
Rideout, V. (2007). Parents, children & media: A Kaiser Family Foundation survey. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED542901.
Rideout, V. (2015). The common sense census: Media use by tweens and teens. Retrieved from https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-common-sense-census-mediause-by-tweens-and-teens.
Rodgers, R., & Chabrol, H. (2009). Parental attitudes, body image disturbance and disordered eating amongst adolescents and young adults: A review. European Eating Disorders Review, 17, 137–151. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.907.
Rousseau, A., & Eggermont, S. (2017). Television and preadolescents’ objectified dating script: Consequences for self-and interpersonal objectification. Mass Communication and Society, 22, 71–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2017.1341533.
Rousseau, A., Eggermont, S., Bels, A., & Van den Bulck, H. (2018). Separating the sex from the object: Conceptualizing sexualization and (sexual) objectification in Flemish preteens’ popular television programs. Journal of Children and Media, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2018.1425888.
Shen, F. (2004). Chronic accessibility and individual cognitions: Examining the effects of message frames in political advertisements. Journal of Communication, 54, 123–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2004.tb02617.x.
Simpson, C. C., Kwitowski, M., Boutte, R., Gow, R. W., & Mazzeo, S. E. (2016). Messages about appearance, food, weight and exercise in “tween” television. Eating Behaviors, 23, 70–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2016.08.001.
Snell Jr., W. E. (1998). The stereotypes about male sexuality scale. In C. M. Davis, W. L. Yarber, R. Baurerman, G. Schreer, & S. L. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of sexuality-related measures: A compendium (2nd ed., pp. 463–465). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Swami, V., & Voracek, M. (2013). Associations among men's sexist attitudes, objectification of women, and their own drive for muscularity. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14, 168–174. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028437.
Szymanski, D. M., Moffitt, L. B., & Carr, E. R. (2011). Sexual objectification of women: Advances to theory and research. The Counseling Psychologist, 39, 6–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000010378402.
Tatangelo, G. L., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2017). Children’s body image and social comparisons with peers and the media. Journal of Health Psychology, 22, 776–787. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105315615409.
ter Bogt, T. F., Engels, R. C., Bogers, S., & Kloosterman, M. (2010). “Shake it baby, shake it”: Media preferences, sexual attitudes and gender stereotypes among adolescents. Sex Roles, 63, 844–859. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9815-1.
Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2015). The role of self-objectification in the mental health of early adolescent girls: Predictors and consequences. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 40, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsv021.
Toomey, R. B., Card, N. A., & Casper, D. M. (2014). Peers’ perceptions of gender nonconformity: Associations with overt and relational peer victimization and aggression in early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 34, 463–485. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431613495446.
Valkenburg, P. M., & Cantor, J. (2000). Children’s likes and dislikes of entertainment programs. In D. Zillmann & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Media entertainment: The psychology of its appeal (pp. 135–152). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2013). The differential susceptibility to media effects model. Journal of Communication, 63, 221–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12024.
Vandenbosch, L., Vervloessem, D., & Eggermont, S. (2013). “I might get your heart racing in my skin-tight jeans”: Sexualization on music entertainment television. Communication Studies, 64, 178–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2012.755640.
Wallis, C. (2011). Performing gender: A content analysis of gender display in music videos. Sex Roles, 64, 160–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9814-2.
Ward, L. M. (1995). Talking about sex: Common themes about sexuality in the prime-time television programs children and adolescents view most. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 595–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537058.
Ward, L. M. (2002). Does television exposure affect emerging adults’ attitudes and assumptions about sexual relationships? Correlation and experimental confirmation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014068031532.
Ward, L. M. (2016). Media and sexualization: State of empirical research, 1995–2015. The Journal of Sex Research, 53, 560–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1142496.
Ward, L. M., Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2015). The impact of men's magazines on adolescent boys' objectification and courtship beliefs. Journal of Adolescence, 39, 49–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.12.004.
Widman, L., Choukas-Bradley, S., Helms, S. W., Golin, C. E., & Prinstein, M. J. (2014). Sexual communication between early adolescents and their dating partners, parents, and best friends. The Journal of Sex Research, 51, 731–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.843148.
Zosuls, K. M., Miller, C. F., Ruble, D. N., Martin, C. L., & Fabes, R. A. (2011). Gender development research in sex roles: Historical trends and future directions. Sex Roles, 64, 826–842. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9902-3.
Zurbriggen, E., Ramsey, L., & Jaworski, B. (2011). Self- and partner objectification in romantic relationships: Associations with media consumption and relationship satisfaction. Sex Roles, 64, 449–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9933-4.
Acknowledgements
The present research was funded by a grant (G050513 N) from the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) granted to the first author.
Funding
This study was funded by a grant from the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) granted to the last author.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Uniqueness of Publication
The manuscript has not been submitted to more than one journal for simultaneous consideration. The manuscript was submitted to the International Communication Association conference. If the manuscript is accepted, the findings will be presented at the ICA conference, but the manuscript will not be published in the conference’s proceedings.
Ethical Approval
This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors. This study involved human participants, and procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Active informed consent was obtained from all participants. Authorship and ordering: All authors agree to the authorship order and manuscript content.
Electronic Supplementary Material
ESM 1
(DOCX 18 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rousseau, A., Rodgers, R.F. & Eggermont, S. A Short-Term Longitudinal Exploration of the Impact of TV Exposure on Objectifying Attitudes Toward Women in Early Adolescent Boys. Sex Roles 80, 186–199 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0925-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0925-5