Abstract
Prejudicial attitudes and discrimination toward gay men is a common social problem in Turkey as it is in many other countries. It is important to understand the reasons behind the prejudice against gay men in a sexist and Muslim country, Turkey. The purpose of the study was to predict attitudes toward gay men with ambivalent attitudes toward men (hostility toward men, and benevolence toward men), questioning religion, and gender differences. Three hundred seventy-two (91 male and 281 female) heterosexual Muslim students from several universities in Ankara completed Attitudes toward Gay men Scale, Ambivalence toward Men Inventory, and Questioning Religion Scale. The mean age of the participants was 22.79 (SD = 3.07). Results, in general, demonstrated that gender differences, benevolence toward men, and questioning religion predicted attitudes toward gay men. Men were more prejudiced against gay men than women. Participants who scored high on benevolence toward men and low on questioning religion were also more prejudiced against gay men than those who scored low on benevolence toward men and high on questioning religion. Further, gender differences was a moderator variable for the association between hostility toward men and attitudes toward gay men. When the regression analyses were performed separately for female and male participants, it was seen that hostility toward men, benevolence toward men, and questioning religion predicted attitudes toward gay men for women whereas for men only benevolence toward men and questioning religion predicted attitudes toward gay men. Results were discussed in the light of relevant literature.
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Appendices
Appendices
English Version of Attitudes Toward Gay Men Scale (ATG)
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Sex between two men is just plain wrong.
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2)-
I think that male homosexuals are disgusting.
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3)-
Male homosexuality is a natural expression of sexuality in men.
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Male homosexuality is a perversion.
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5)-
Male homosexuality is merely a different kind of lifestyle that should be not be condemned.
Turkish Version of ATG
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1)-
İki erkek arasındaki seks apaçık yanlıştır.
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2)-
Erkek eşcinsellerin (geylerin) iğrenç olduğunu düşünüyorum.
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3)-
Erkek eşcinselliği erkeklerdeki cinselliğin doğal bir dışavurumudur.
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4)-
Erkek eşcinselliği bir sapkınlıktır.
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5)-
Erkek eşcinselliği kınanmaması gereken sadece farklı bir yaşam tarzıdır.
English Version of Ambivalence Toward Men Inventory (AMI)
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1)-
Even if both members of a couple work, the woman ought to be more attentive to taking care of her man at home.
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2)-
A man who is sexually attracted to a woman typically has no morals about doing whatever it takes to get her in bed.
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3)-
Men are less likely to fall apart in emergencies than women are.
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4)-
When men act to “help” women, they are often trying to prove they are better than women.
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5)-
Every woman needs a male partner who will cherish her.
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Men would be lost in this world if women weren’t there to guide them.
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A woman will never be truly fulfilled in life if she doesn’t have a committed, long-term relationship with a man.
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8)-
Men act like babies when they are sick.
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Men will always fight to have greater control in society than women.
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Men are mainly useful to provide financial security for women.
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Even men who claim to be sensitive to women’s rights really want a traditional relationship at home, with the woman performing most of the housekeeping and child care.
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Every woman ought to have a man she adores.
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Men are more willing to put themselves in danger to protect others.
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Men usually try to dominate conversations when talking to women.
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Most men pay lip service to equality for women, but can’t handle having a woman as an equal.
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Women are incomplete without men.
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When it comes down to it, most men are really like children.
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Men are more willing to take risks than women.
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Most men sexually harass women, even if only in subtle ways, once they are in a position of power over them.
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Women ought to take care of their men at home, because men would fall apart if they had to fend for themselves.
Turkish Version of AMI
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1.
Çiftlerden ikisi de çalısıyor olsa bile, kadın evde erkeğine bakma konusunda daha fazla sorumluluk üstlenmelidir.
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2.
Bir erkek cinsel açıdan çekici bulduğu kadını yatağa atmak için ne gerekiyorsa yapmak konusunda tipik olarak hiç bir ahlaki değere sahip değildir.
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3.
Acil durumlarda erkekler kadınlara göre daha düşük olasılıkla kendilerini kaybedeceklerdir.
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4.
Erkekler kadınlara “yardım ediyor” gibi gözükürken, çoğunlukla kendilerinin kadınlardan daha iyi olduklarını kanıtlamaya çalışırlar.
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5.
Her kadının kendisini el üstünde tutacak bir erkeğe ihtiyacı vardır.
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6.
Eğer kendilerine yol gösterecek kadınlar olmasaydı erkekler dünyada kaybolurlardı.
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7.
Eğer kadının bir erkekle uzun süreli, bağlılık içeren bir ilişkisi yoksa bu hayatta gerçek anlamda kendini tamamlamış sayılmaz.
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8.
Erkekler hasta olduklarında bebekler gibi davranırlar.
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9.
Erkekler toplumda kadınlardan daha fazla kontrole sahip olmak için her zaman çabalarlar.
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10.
Erkekler temelde kadınlara maddi güvence sağlamak açısından yararlıdırlar.
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11.
Kadın haklarına duyarlı olduğunu iddia eden erkekler bile aslında ev işlerinin ve çocuk bakımının çoğunu kadının üstlendiği geleneksel bir ilişki isterler.
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12.
Her kadının hayran olduğu bir erkeği olmalıdır.
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13.
Erkekler başkalarını korumak için kendilerini tehlikeye atmaya daha gönüllüdürler.
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14.
Erkekler kadınlarla konuşurken genellikle baskın olmaya çalışırlar.
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15.
Çoğu erkek kadınlar için eşitliği sözde savunur ama bir kadını kendilerine eşit olarak görmeyi kaldıramazlar.
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16.
Kadınlar erkeksiz eksiktirler.
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17.
Özüne bakıldığında, çoğu erkek gerçekten çocuk gibidir.
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18.
Erkekler kadınlara oranla risk almaya daha gönüllüdürler.
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19.
Çoğu erkek, kadınlar üzerinde güç sahibi oldukları bir pozisyonda bulundukları anda, üstü kapalı yolla bile olsa kadınları cinsel açıdan taciz ederler.
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20.
Kadınlar evde erkeklerine bakmalıdırlar çünkü eğer erkekler kendi kendilerine bakmak zorunda kalırlarsa bunu beceremezler.
English Version of Questioning Religion Scale
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1)-
I cannot accept my religion the way it is presented without questioning.
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2)-
I question the rules of my religion and practice the religion according to my own understanding.
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3)-
As I grow and change, my religion also grows and changes with me.
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4)-
No system of religious belief is valid for everyone or can provide absolute truth.
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5)-
As a believer, I think religious rules can be changed and adapted to current times.
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6)-
I think that being skeptical about my religion helps me to expand my horizons.
Turkish Version of Questioning Religion Scale
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1)-
Dini sorgulamadan sunulduğu gibi kabul edemem.
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2)-
Dinin kurallarını sorgular ve kendi anladıklarıma göre uygularım.
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3)-
Ben değiştikçe dini inançlarım da benimle birlikte değişip gelişir.
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4)-
Hiçbir dini inanç sistemi herkes için geçerli değildir ve gerçek doğruyu sağlayamaz.
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5)-
İnançlı bir kişi olarak dini kuralların günümüze göre uyarlanması taraftarıyım.
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6)-
Dine şüpheci yaklaşmanın beni yeni açılımlara yönlendirdiğini düşünüyorum.
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Sakallı-Uğurlu, N., Uğurlu, O. Predicting Attitudes Toward Gay Men with Ambivalence Toward Men, Questioning Religion, and Gender Differences. Sex Roles 74, 195–205 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0571-0
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0571-0