Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Understanding the Relationships Among White and African American Women’s Sexual Objectification Experiences, Physical Safety Anxiety, and Psychological Distress

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) asserted that sexual objectification experiences are likely related to women’s physical safety anxiety; however, to date, very few studies have examined this relationship. Using a sample of 228 U.S. undergraduate women (n = 133 Black/African American; n = 95 White) from a Southeastern university, this study explored the relationships among sexual objectification experiences, physical safety concerns (i.e., perceived risk of crime, fear of crime, and fear of rape), and overall psychological distress. Findings revealed that Black/African American women reported more sexual objectification experiences and fear of crime than White women. Results of a measured variable path analysis suggested that perceived risk of crime fully mediated the relationships between sexual objectification experiences and fear of crime for both groups of women. Moreover, perceived risk of crime fully mediated the relationship between sexual objectification experiences and psychological distress for Black/African American women, but not White women. For White women only, fear of rape partially mediated the relationship between perceived risk of crime and fear of crime, and perceived risk of crime fully mediated the relationship between sexual objectification experiences and fear of rape. Taken together, the results suggest that a sociocultural context that objectifies women and their bodies is related to their sense of safety and security in the world.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acierno, R., Rheingold, A. A., Resnick, H. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2004). Predictors of fear of crime in older adults. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18, 385–397. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(03)00012-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anxiety and Depression Association of America. (2012). Understanding the facts: Generalized anxiety disorder. Retrieved from http://www.adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad

  • Aosved, A. C., & Long, P. J. (2006). Co-occurrence of rape myth acceptance, sexism, racism, homophobia, ageism, classism, and religious intolerance. Sex Roles, 55, 481–492. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9101-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aubrey, J. S. (2006). Exposure to sexually objectifying media and body self-perceptions among college women: An examination of the selective exposure hypothesis and the role of moderating variables. Sex Roles, 55, 159–172. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9070-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beal, F. M. (1970). Double jeopardy: To be Black and female. In T. Cade (Ed.), The Black woman: An anthology (pp. 90–100). New York: Signet.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaulieu, M., Leclerc, N., & Dubé, M. (2003). Fear of crime among the elderly: An analysis of mental health issues. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 40, 121–138. doi:10.1300/J083v40n04_09.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berdahl, J. L., & Moore, C. (2006). Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy for minority women. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 426–436. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.2.426.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergman, M. E., & Drasgow, F. (2003). Race as a moderator in a model of sexual harassment: An empirical test. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 8, 131–145. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.8.2.131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Black, M.C., Basile, K.C., Breiding, M.J., Smith, S.G., Walters, M.L., Merrick, M.T., …, Stevens, M.R. (2011). The National intimate partner and sexual violence survey (NISVS): 2010 summary report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/violencePrevention/NISVS/index.html

  • Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brownmiller, S. (1975). Against our will: Men, women, and rape. New York: The Ballantine Publishing Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan, N. T., & West, C. M. (2010). Sexual harassment in the lives of women of color. In H. Landrine & N. F. Russo (Eds.), Handbook of diversity in feminist psychology (pp. 449–476). New York: Springer Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan, N. T., Bergman, M. E., Bruce, T. A., Woods, K. C., & Lichty, L. L. (2009). Unique and joint effects of sexual and racial harassment on college students’ well-being. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 31, 267–285. doi:10.1080/01973530903058532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callanan, V. J. (2012). Media consumption, perceptions of crime risk and fear of crime: Examining race/ethnic differences. Sociological Perspectives, 55, 93–155. doi:10.1525/sop.2012.55.1.93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chapleau, K. M., Oswald, D. L., & Russell, B. L. (2007). How ambivalent sexism toward women and men supports rape myth acceptance. Sex Roles, 57, 131–136. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9196-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiricos, T., McEntire, R., & Gertz, M. (2001). Perceived racial and ethnic composition of neighborhood and perceived risk of crime. Social Problems, 48, 322–340. doi:10.1525/sp.2001.48.3.322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clemente, F., & Kleiman, M. B. (1977). Fear of crime in the United States: A multivariate analysis. Social Forces, 56, 519–531. doi:10.1093/sf/56.2.519.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins, P. H. (2009). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, P. H. (2010). Assume the position: The changing contours of sexual violence. In L. J. Moore & M. Kosut (Eds.), The body reader: Essential social and cultural readings (pp. 80–107). New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cortina, L. M., Swan, S., Fitzgerald, L. F., & Waldo, C. (1998). Sexual harassment and assault: Chilling the climate for women in academia. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 419–441. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00166.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dobbs, R. R., Waid, C. A., & Shelley, T. O. (2009). Explaining fear of crime as fear of rape among college females: An examination of multiple campuses in the United States. International Journal or Social Inquiry, 2, 104–122. Retrieved from http://www.socialinquiry.org/.

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, U., Bathrick, D., & Perry, P. A. (2008). Deconstructing male violence against women: The men stopping violence community-accountability model. Violence Against Women, 14, 247–261. doi:10.1177/1077801207312637.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enns, C. Z. (2004). Feminist theories and feminist psychotherapies: Origins, themes, and diversity. NY: Haworth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans-Polce, R., Hulbert, A., & Latkin, C. (2013). The association of multiple neighborhood perceptions with depression among a highly impoverished urban sample. Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 52–64. doi:10.1002/jcop.21510.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fairchild, K., & Rudman, L. A. (2008). Everyday stranger harassment and women’s objectification. Social Justice Research, 21, 338–357. doi:10.1007/s11211-008-0073-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferraro, K. F. (1995). Fear of crime: Interpreting victimization risks. Albany: SUNY Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferraro, K. F. (1996). Women’s fear of victimization: Shadow of sexual assault? Social Forces, 75, 667–690. doi:10.1093/sf/75.2.667.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, A. R., & Holz, K. B. (2007). Perceived discrimination and women’s psychological distress: The roles of collective and personal self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 154–164. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.2.154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, B. S., & Sloan, J. J. (2003). Unraveling the fear of victimization among college women? Is the “shadow of sexual assault” hypothesis supported? Justice Quarterly, 20, 633–659. doi:10.1080/07418820300095651.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, B. S., Sloan, J. J., Cullen, F. T., & Lu, C. (1997). The on-campus victimization patterns of students: Implications for crime prevention by students and post-secondary institutions. In S. P. Lab (Ed.), Crime prevention at a crossroads (pp. 101–123). Cincinnati: Anderson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. (2000). The sexual victimization of college women. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1997). Hostile and benevolent sexism: Measuring ambivalent sexist attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 119–135. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00104.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, M. T., & Riger, S. (1991). The female fear. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gore, S., & Aseltine, R. H., Jr. (2003). Race and ethnic differences in depressed mood following the transition from high school. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 44, 370–389. doi:10.2307/1519785.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harper, B., & Tiggemann, M. (2008). The effect of thin ideal media images on women’s self-objectification, mood, and body image. Sex Roles, 58, 649–657. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9379-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hilinski, C. M. (2009). Fear of crime among college students: A test of the shadow of sexual assault hypothesis. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 34, 84–102. doi:10.1007/s2103-00809047-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Houts, S., & Kassab, C. (1997). Rotter’s social learning theory and fear of crime: Differences by race and ethnicity. Social Science Quarterly, 78, 122–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalof, L. (2000). Ethnic differences in female sexual victimization. Sexuality & Culture: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly, 4, 75–97. doi:10.1007/s12119-000-1005-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 617–627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klonoff, E. A., & Landrine, H. (1995). The schedule of sexist events: A measure of lifetime and recent sexist discrimination in women’s lives. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 439–472. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00086.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kozee, H. B., Tylka, T. L., Augustus-Horvath, C. L., & Denchik, A. (2007). Development and psychometric evaluation of the interpersonal sexual objectification scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 176–189. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00351.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1997). Discrimination against women: Prevalence, consequences, remedies. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., Alcaraz, R., Scott, J., & Wilkins, P. (1995). Multiple variables in discrimination. In B. Lott & D. Maluso (Eds.), The social psychology of interpersonal discrimination (pp. 193–224). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, J., Gover, A. R., & Dahod, S. (2009). Fear of violent crime among men and women on campus: The impact of perceived risk and fear of sexual assault. Violence and Victims, 24, 172–192. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.24.2.172.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995a). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales (2nd ed.). Sydney: Psychology Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995b). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 335–343. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacMillan, R., Nierobisz, A., & Welsh, S. (2000). Experiencing the streets: Harassment and perceptions of safety among women. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 37, 306–322. doi:10.1177/0022427800037003003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masser, B., Viki, G. T., & Power, C. (2006). Hostile sexism and rape proclivity amongst men. Sex Roles, 54, 565–574. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9022-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • May, D. C. (2001). The effect of fear of sexual victimization on adolescent fear of crime. Sociological Spectrum, 21, 141–174. doi:10.1080/027321701300035484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, H. F., Lewis, T. T., & Parker-Dominguez, T. (2002). Stress, coping and minority health: Biopsychosocial perspective on ethnic health disparities. In G. Bernal, J. E. Trimble, A. K. Burlew, & F. T. L. Leong (Eds.), Handbook of racial and ethnic minority psychology (pp. 377–400). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osland, J. A., Fitch, M., & Willis, E. E. (1996). Likelihood to rape in college males. Sex Roles, 35, 171–183. doi:10.1007/BF01433105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pain, R. (1993). Crime, social control, and spatial constraint: A study of women’s fear of sexual violence. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh.

  • Parker, K. D. (1988). Black-White differences in perceptions of fear of crime. Journal of Social Psychology, 128, 487–495. doi:10.1080/00224545.1988.9713768.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, K. D., & Ray, M. C. (1990). Fear of crime: An assessment of related factors. Sociological Spectrum, 10, 29–40. doi:10.1080/02732173.1990.9981910.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plant, E. A., & Sachs-Ericsson, N. (2004). Racial and ethnic differences in depression: The roles of social support and meeting basic needs. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 41–52. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.72.1.41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pryor, D. W., & Hughes, M. R. (2013). Fear of rape among college women: A social psychological analysis. Violence and Victims, 28, 443–465. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-12-00029.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rader, N. E. (2008). Gendered fear strategies: Intersections of doing gender and fear management in married and divorced women’s lives. Sociological Focus, 41, 34–52. doi:10.1080/00380237.2008.10571322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rader, N. E., Cossman, J. S., & Allison, M. (2009). Considering the gendered nature of constrained behavior practices among male and female college students. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 25, 282–299. doi:10.1177/1043986209335015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rader, N. E., Cossman, J. S., & Porter, J. R. (2012). Fear of crime and vulnerability: Using a national sample of Americans to examine two competing paradigms. Journal of Criminal Justice, 40, 134–141. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2012.02.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rapaport, K. R., & Posey, C. D. (1991). Sexually coercive college males. In A. Parrot & L. Bechhofer (Eds.), Acquaintance rape: The hidden crime (pp. 217–228). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudman, L. A., & Mescher, K. (2012). Of animals and objects: Men’s implicit dehumanization of women and likelihood of sexual aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 734–746. doi:10.1177/0146167212436401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, D. E. H., & Bolen, R. M. (2000). The epidemic of rape and child sexual abuse in the United States. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, C. S., Lefley, H. P., & Hicks, D. (1993). Potential risk factors for rape in three ethnic groups. Community Mental Health Journal, 29, 133–141. doi:10.1007/BF00756339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Senn, C. Y., & Dzinas, K. (1996). Measuring fear of rape: A new scale. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne des Sciences due Comportement, 28, 141–144. doi:10.1037/0008-400X.28.2.141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheffield, C. (1987). Sexual terrorism: The social control of women. In B. B. Hess & M. M. Ferree (Eds.), Analyzing gender: A handbook of social science research (pp. 171–189). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sidanius, J. (1993). The interface between racism and sexism. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 127, 311–322. doi:10.1080/00223980.1993.9915565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stafford, M., Chandola, T., & Marmot, M. (2007). Association between fear of crime and mental health and physical functioning. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 2076–2081. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.097154.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stanko, E. (1995). Women, crime, and fear. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 539(1), 46–58. doi:10.1177/0002716295539001004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szymanski, D. M., & Stewart, D. N. (2010). Racism and sexism as correlates of African American women’s psychological distress. Sex Roles, 63, 226–238. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9788-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, A. J., Witherspoon, K. M., & Speight, S. L. (2008). Gendered racism, psychological distress, and coping styles of African American women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14, 307–314. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.307.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomsich, E. A., Gover, A. R., & Jennings, W. G. (2011). Examining the role of gender in the prevalence of campus victimization, perceptions of fear and risk of crime, and the use of constrained behaviors among college students attending a large urban university. Journal of Criminal Justice, 22, 181–202. doi:10.1080/10511253.2010.517772.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Justice. (2005). National crime victimization survey, 2005. Retrieved from http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=766.

  • U.S. Department of Justice. (2010). National crime victimization survey: Criminal victimization, 2009. Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cv09.pdf.

  • U.S. Department of Justice (2012). Criminal victimization, 2012. Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cv12.pdf.

  • Ullman, S. E. (2010). Talking about sexual assault: Society’s response to survivors. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Urquiza, A. J., & Goodlin-Jones, B. L. (1994). Child sexual abuse and adult revictimization with women of color. Violence & Victims, 9, 223–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warr, M. (1985). Fear of rape among urban women. Social Problems, 32, 238–252. doi:10.2307/800684.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, L. B., Robinson, D., Dispenza, F., & Nazari, N. (2012). African American women’s sexual objectification experiences: A qualitative study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 458–475. doi:10.1177/0361684312454724.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilbur, J., Chandler, P. J., Dancey, B., & Lee, H. (2003). Correlates of physical activity in urban Midwestern African-American women. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 25, 45–52. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(03)00164-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilcox, P., Jordan, C. E., & Pritchard, A. J. (2006). Fear of acquaintance versus stranger rape as a “Master Status”: Towards refinement of the “Shadow of Sexual Assault.”. Violence and Victims, 21, 355–370. doi:10.1891/vivi.21.3.355.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R. (2000). Race, stress, and mental health: Findings from the Commonwealth Minority Health Survey. In C. Hogue, M. Hargraves, & K. Scott-Collins (Eds.), Minority health in America: Findings and policy implications from the Commonwealth Fund Minority Health Survey (pp. 209–243). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woods-Giscombé, C. L., & Lobel, M. (2008). Race and gender matter: A multidimensional approach to conceptualizing and measuring stress in African American women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14, 173–182. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.3.173.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wyatt, G. E. (1992). The sociocultural context of African American and White American women’s rape. Journal of Social Issues, 48, 77–91. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1992.tb01158.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, USA

    Laurel B. Watson, Jacob M. Marszalek & Christopher M. Davids

  2. Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA

    Franco Dispenza

Authors
  1. Laurel B. Watson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jacob M. Marszalek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Franco Dispenza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Christopher M. Davids
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Laurel B. Watson.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Watson, L.B., Marszalek, J.M., Dispenza, F. et al. Understanding the Relationships Among White and African American Women’s Sexual Objectification Experiences, Physical Safety Anxiety, and Psychological Distress. Sex Roles 72, 91–104 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0444-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0444-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation