Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Creating and Sustaining Gender Diversity in Sport Organizations

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Past diversity frameworks have focused on the desired end state of diversity management strategies (i.e., cultures that value diversity and capitalize on the benefits that differences can bring to the organization) but have largely failed to highlight the methods of creating such change. A model is proposed that addresses this gap in the literature. Specifically, I argue that political, functional, and social pressures will call into question the legitimacy of the institutionalized nature of gender inequality in sport organizations. These pressures are then thought to result in employee commitment to and behavioral support for gender diversity initiatives. The relationship between the pressures for deinstitutionalization and commitment to gender diversity are thought to be moderated by four factors: the presence of change teams, education, top management support, and systemic integration. Contributions and future directions are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acosta, R. V., & Carpenter, L. J. (2006). Women in intercollegiate sport: A longitudinal study-twenty nine year update-1977–2006. Unpublished manuscript, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, NY.

  • Bacharach, S. B. (1989). Organizational theories: Some criteria for evaluation. Academy of Management Review, 14, 496–515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations for thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blinde, E. M., Greendorfer, S. L., & Shanker, R. J. (1991). Differential media coverage of men’s and women’s intercollegiate basketball: Reflection of gender ideology. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 15, 98–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, L. J., & Acosta, R. V. (2005). Title IX. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chelladurai, P. (2005). Managing organizations for sport and physical activity: A systems perspective (2nd ed.). Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb Hathaway.

    Google Scholar 

  • Claringbould, I., & Knoppers, A. (2007). Finding a ‘normal’ woman: Selection processes for board membership. Sex Roles, 56, 495–507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cobb, A. T. (1986). Political diagnosis: Applications in organizational development. Academy of Management Review, 11, 482–496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox , T. H., Jr. (2001). Creating a multicultural organization: Theory, research, and practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, T. (2002). Taking diversity to the next level. Executive Excellence, 19, 19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, G. B. (2002). Removing the blinders: Toward and integrative model of organizational change in sport and physical activity. Quest, 54, 276–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, G. B. (2007). Diversity in sport organizations. Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb Hathaway.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, G. B., & Fink, J. S. (2006). Diversity issues in sport and leisure: Introduction to a special issue. Journal of Sport Management, 20, 455–465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, G. B., & Sagas, M. (2002). The differential effects of human capital for male and female Division I basketball coaches. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 73, 489–495.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dacin, M. T., Goodstein, J., & Scott, W. R. (2002). Institutional theory and institutional change: Introduction to the special research forum. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 45–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danylchuk, K. E., & MacLean, J. (2001). Intercollegiate athletics in Canadian universities: Perspectives on the future. Journal of Sport Management, 15, 364–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeSensi, J. T. (1995). Understanding multiculturalism and valuing diversity: A theoretical perspective. Quest, 47, 34–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48, 147–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, M. A., & Bruening, J. E. (2005). Perspectives on work-family conflict in sport: An integrated approach. Sport Management Review, 8, 227–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, M. A., & Cunningham, G. B. (2006). Multi-level analysis in sport management: Conceptual issues and review of aggregation techniques. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 10(2), 85–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doherty, A. J., & Chelladurai, P. (1999). Managing cultural diversity in sport organizations: A theoretical perspective. Journal of Sport Management, 13, 280–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ely, R. J., & Meyerson, D. E. (2000). Advancing gender equity in organizations: The challenge and importance of maintaining a gender narrative. Organization, 7, 589–608.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fenwick, G. D., & Neale, D. J. (2001). Effect of gender composition on group performance. Gender, Work and Organization, 8, 205–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fink, J. S., & Pastore, D. L. (1999). Diversity in sport? Utilizing the business literature to devise a comprehensive framework of diversity initiatives. Quest, 51, 310–327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fink, J. S., Pastore, D. L., & Riemer, H. A. (2001). Do differences make a difference? Managing diversity in Division IA intercollegiate athletics. Journal of Sport Management, 15, 10–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fink, J. S., Pastore, D. L., & Riemer, H. A. (2003). Managing employee diversity: Perceived practices and organizational outcomes in NCAA Division III athletic departments. Sport Management Review, 6, 147–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, J. A., & Ivancevich, J. M. (2000). Valuing diversity: A tale of two organizations. Academy of Management Executive, 14(1), 93–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, R., & Hinings, C. R. (1996). Understanding radical organizational change: Brining together the old and new institutionalism. Academy of Management Review, 21, 1022–1054.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herscovitch, L., & Meyer, J. P. (2002). Commitment to organizational change: Extension of a three-component model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 474–487.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinings, C. R., & Greenwood, R. (1988). The dynamics of strategic change. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschhorn, L. (2002). Campaigning for change. Harvard Business Review, 80(7), 98–104.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Inglis, S., Danylchuk, K. E., & Pastore, D. L. (2000). Multiple realities of women's work experiences in coaching and athletic management. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 9(2), 1–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, L. C. (1999). Ethnocultural resistance to multicultural training: Students and faculty. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5, 27–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jayne, M. E. A., & Dipboye, R. L. (2004). Leveraging diversity to improve business performance: Research findings and recommendations for organizations. Human Resource Management, 43, 409–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanter, R. M. (2004). The middle manager as an innovator. Harvard Business Review, 82(7/8), 150–161.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kotter, J. P. (1995). Leading change: Why transformation efforts fail. Harvard Business Review, 73(2), 59–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Klein, K. J. (2000). A multilevel approach to theory and research in organizations: Contextual, temporal, and emergent processes. In K. J. Klein, & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.) Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 3–90). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, K., Carswell, J. J., & Allen, N. J. (2000). A meta-analytic review of occupational commitment: Relations with person- and work-related variables. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 799–811.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, K. (1952). Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers by Kurt Lewin. London: Tavistok.

    Google Scholar 

  • McBride, D. K., Worcester, L. L., & Tennyson, S. L. (1999). Women’s athletics and the elimination of men’s sports programs: A reevaluation. Cato Journal, 19, 323–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messner, M. A., Duncan, M. C., & Jensen, K. (1993). Separating the men from the girls: The gendered language of televised sports. Gender & Society, 7, 121–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Messner, M., & Sabo, D. (1990). Sport, men, and the gender order. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messner, M. A., & Solomon, N. M. (2007). Social justice and men’s interests: The case of Title IX. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 31, 162–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1, 61–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. P., & Herscovitch, L. (2001). Commitment to the workplace: Toward a general model. Human Resource Management Review, 11, 299–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyerson, D. E., & Kolb, D. M. (2000). Moving out of the “armchair”: Developing a framework to bridge the gap between feminist theory and practice. Organization, 7, 553–571.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, C. (1992). The antecedents of deinstitutionalization. Organization Studies, 13, 563–588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parks, J. B, & Roberton, M. A. (2002). The gender gap in student attitudes toward sexist/nonsexist language: Implications for sport management education. Journal Sport Management Review, 16, 190–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redick, C. A. (2006). Testimony of Catherine Anne Redick. Accessed May 30, 2006 from http://commerce.senate.gov/pdf/reddick-020106.pdf, February.

  • Robbins, S. P. (2003). Essentials of organizational behavior (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogelberg, S. G., & Rumery, S. M. (1996). Gender diversity, team decision quality, time on task, and interpersonal cohesion. Small Group Research, 27, 79–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sagas, M., & Cunningham, G. B. (2004). Does having the “right stuff” matter? Gender differences in the determinants of career success among intercollegiate athletic administrators. Sex Roles, 50, 411–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salancik, G. R., & Pfeffer, J. (1978). A social information processing approach to job attitudes and job design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 23, 224–253.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sartore, M. L., & Cunningham, G. B. (2007). Ideological gender beliefs, identity control and self-limiting behavior within sport organizations. Quest, 59, 244–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, W. R. (1987). The adolescence of institutional theory. Administrative Science Quarterly, 32, 493–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, W. R. (2001). Institutions and organizations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, S. (2006). Scratching the back of “Mr. X”: Analyzing gendered social processes in sport organizations. Journal of Sport Management, 20, 510–534.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, S., & Frisby, W. (2006). Can gender equity be more equitable?: Promoting and alternative frame for sport management research, education, and practice. Journal of Sport Management, 20, 483–509.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, S., & Hoeber, L. (2003). “A strong man is direct and a direct woman is a bitch”: Gendered discourses and their influence on employment roles in sport organizations. Journal of Sport Management, 17, 347–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, M., Elango, B., Houghton, S. M., & Savelli, S. (2002). The successful product pioneers: Maintaining commitment while adapting to change. Journal of Small Business Management, 40, 187–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tolbert, P. (1985). Resource dependence and institutional environments: Sources of administrative structure in institutions of higher education. Administrative Science Quarterly, 30, 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van de Ven, A. H., & Poole, M. S. (1995). Explaining development and change in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 20, 510–540.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whisenant, W. A., Pederson, P. M., & Obenour, B. L. (2002). Success and gender: Determining the rate of advancement for intercollegiate athletic directors. Sex Roles, 47, 485–491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, L. G. (1987). Institutional theories of organizations. Annual Review of Sociology, 13, 443–464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratory for Diversity in Sport, Texas A&M University, TAMU 4243, College Station, TX, 77843-4243, USA

    George B. Cunningham

Authors
  1. George B. Cunningham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to George B. Cunningham.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cunningham, G.B. Creating and Sustaining Gender Diversity in Sport Organizations. Sex Roles 58, 136–145 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9312-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9312-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation