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Experts, ideas, and policy change: the Russell Sage Foundation and small loan reform, 1909–1941

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Abstract

Between 1909 and 1941, the Russell Sage Foundation (RSF) was actively involved in crafting and lobbying for policy solutions to the pervasive problem of predatory lending. Using a rich assortment of archival records, I build upon political learning theory by demonstrating how institutional conditions and political pressures – in addition to new knowledge gained through scientific study and practical experience – all contributed to the emergence and development of RSF experts’ policy ideas over the course of this 30-year period. In light of these findings, I suggest that policy ideas and political interests are mutually constitutive, and that the notion that ideas must be shown to operate independent of interests in order to “prove” that they matter in policymaking is misguided. Furthermore, I discuss the implications of the remarkable success of RSF’s policy proposals for current understandings of institutional change. In particular, I argue that the passage of RSF’s controversial Uniform Small Loan Law in 34 states suggests that political actors’ collective agency can produce significant policy reforms in a context of normal policymaking without the intervention of major destabilizing events.

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  1. Kennebunkport Tribune. November 4, 1911. “A Board of Associated Charities for Cities of Augusta, Gardina, Hallowell and Waterville Suggested by Mrs. Scott at State Charities Conference; Arthur Ham Savagely Attacks Certain Loan Agencies.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 22.

  2. RSF’s work in the area of small loan reform could be seen as a precursor to the micro-credit movement, which is currently being promoted by development organizations and the United Nations to alleviate poverty in developing countries. The motivations behind RSF’s small loan reform work and contemporary micro-credit programs are somewhat different, however. Whereas contemporary micro-credit is often used to help impoverished people (especially women) begin self-employment projects and become small-time entrepreneurs, early twentieth-century American small loans were used by working people to pay for major purchases or to help them get through emergencies such as illness or temporary unemployment. RSF experts sometimes portrayed small loans as an avenue to entrepreneurship, but they understood that their primary function was to help workers overcome setbacks caused by unemployment or low wages.

  3. This is not to say that actors’ political interests are normally divorced from their objective material circumstances (e.g., their class position). Ideas help actors interpret their social location and translate their material circumstances into specific policy goals. But although ideas help actors identify and define their political goals, these goals remain tethered to material circumstances in such a way that actors typically do not knowingly pursue goals that undermine their “objective” interests in an obvious way.

  4. Campbell (2004) recognizes that treating interests as being free from ideas is a mistake. Instead, he separates “ideas that are interests” from “ideas other than interests,” and calls for an exploration of the impact of the latter on political outcomes. The point I wish to make here is that just as interests are socially constructed through ideas, policy ideas are also bound up with the interests of their proponents. Even if policy proponents don’t stand to materially benefit from the implementation of their proposals, they almost always stand to benefit in other ways – e.g., by enhancing their own reputation or the prestige of the organization they represent. This is especially true in the case of policy experts like those at RSF, who are, after all, in the business of marketing policy ideas.

  5. Arthur Ham, Russell Sage Foundation. 1911. “Remedial Loans: A Constructive Program.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 55. Similar arguments are also presented in:Glenn Donaldson, Russell Sage Foundation. May 1942. “The Growing Need for Small Loan Regulation in Colorado.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 11.

  6. Russell Sage Foundation [author unknown]. 1943. “Philosophy.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 5.Similar arguments are also presented in: Rolf Nugent, Russell Sage Foundation. March 1939. “Need for Small Loan Legislation, Generally.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 13.

  7. See also Nugent (1938).

  8. Ansley Wilcox. Speech made before Merchant’s Association of New York in May 1911. “Remarks of Ansley Wilcox, of Buffalo.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 38.

  9. Arthur Ham, Russell Sage Foundation. February 1911. Quarterly Report. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 55. Arthur Ham, Russell Sage Foundation. April 1911. Quarterly Report. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 55.

  10. Boston Morning Globe. September 20, 1911. “Governor Signs Loan Shark Bill: State Supervisor Will Control Business Under New Law; Interest Rate.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 24.

  11. Arthur Ham, Russell Sage Foundation. February 1911. Quarterly Report. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 55. Arthur Ham, Russell Sage Foundation. April 1911. Quarterly Report. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 55.

  12. Loans secured through items of personal property such as jewelry or furniture.

  13. Loans secured through future wages. In the event of default, payments were often deducted directly from borrowers’ paychecks.

  14. Arthur Ham. March 2, 1911. Letter to Albert T. Gould. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 38.

  15. The Denver Post. February 14, 1919. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 12.

  16. The Union Advocate. January 20, 1927. Full headline: “Money Lenders Seek to Legalize Usury by Special Legislation: So Called Small Loan Bill is Backed by Moneyed Interests So that a Clear and legal Field Will Be Left for Exploitation.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 26.

  17. The Atlanta News. October 14, 1932. Full headline: “Legalized Loan Sharks are Raising Huge Slush Fund According to Current Reports; Realizing that their Existence is Threatened, They Plan to Use Every Method Known to Mankind; Will Try to ‘Buy’ Legislature, Says Rumor; Russell Sage Foundation Expected to ‘Kick In.’” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 15.

  18. Arthur Ham, Russell Sage Foundation. 1911. “Remedial Loans: A Constructive Program.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 55.

  19. New York Globe. March 9, 1912. “Hidden Power of Loan Sharks Opposes Bill: Law to Supervise Lenders of Money on Salaries Meets Mysterious Obstacles in the Legislature.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 38.

  20. The Columbus Dispatch. August 3, 1930. “The Loan Sharks Organize.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 42.

  21. Editorial in the Asheville, NC Times. March 30, 1930. “The Remedy for ‘Loan Sharks.’” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 42.

  22. Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on the District of Columbia House of Representatives, Seventy-First Congress, Second Session on H.R. 7628. April 17, 1930. Statement of Hon. F.H. LaGuardia. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 120.

  23. F.H. LaGuardia. October 1932. “Usury – the curse of humanity.” Brass Tacks, Vol. 1, No. 2. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 14.

  24. See, for example:Letter from John Glenn, Russell Sage Foundation, to Calvin Coolidge, Governor of Massachusetts. April 10, 1920. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 24; Arthur Ham. September 23, 1921. “The Trend and Progress of the Movement to Improve Small Loan Conditions: Address before the Seventh Annual Convention of the American Industrial Lenders’ Association.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 2;Memo from Leon Henderson, Russell Sage Foundation, to Adolph Held, Amalgamated Bank of New York. April 21, 1930. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 14.

  25. Walter Hilborn. December 1924. Speech before the National Association of Legal Aid Organizations. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 2. See also: Letter from Leon Henderson, RSF, to Sidney F. Taliaferro, Commissioner of the District of Columbia. January 30, 1929. In “The Uniform Small Loan Law Proposed for the District of Columbia.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 14.

  26. Letter from Walter Hilborn, RSF, to W.C. Sproul, Governor of Pennsylvania. May 9, 1919. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 44.

  27. Letter from Walter Hilborn, RSF, to John M. Brooks, Chairman of the Connecticut Senate Banking Committee. March 1, 1919. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 12.

  28. Letter from Arthur Ham, RSF, to W.N. Finley, National Federation of Remedial Loan Societies. March 23, 1915. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 44.The American Association also opposed a bill that RSF introduced in the District of Columbia. See Letter from Arthur Ham to William H. Baldwin. April 13, 1916. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 14.

  29. “Agreement RE: Uniform Law.” November 29, 1916. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 4.

  30. Russell Sage Foundation. October 29, 1940. “Notes on the History of the Foundation’s Relationship with the American Association.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 4.

  31. Household Finance Corporation. December 15, 1929. “The Uniform Small Loan Law Proposed for the District of Columbia.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 14;

  32. Illinois Association of Personal Finance Companies. 1935. “The Personal Finance Business in Illinois.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 16; Iowa Association of Personal Finance Companies. 1935. “The Personal Finance Business in Iowa. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 18;

  33. New York Association of Personal Finance Companies. 1938. “Small Loan Legislation in New York.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 33.

  34. “Agreement RE: Uniform Law.” 1916. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 4; “Agreement between Russell Sage Foundation, Legal Reform Bureau, and American Industrial Licensed Lenders Assn Concerning Uniform Small Loan Law.” 1919. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 4.

  35. American Association of Small Loan Brokers. 1918. “Adopted by the American Association of Small Loan Brokers at a Meeting of the Executive Council at Hotel McAlpin, New York City, April 24, 1918.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 33.

  36. Letter from Leon Henderson, RSF, to William L. Murphy, Oklahoma City attorney. June 24, 1932. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 43.

  37. Letter from William Green, American Federation of Labor, to Marvel, Layton & Norford, Attorneys at Law. February 1, 1929. In, “Organized Labor Endorses the Uniform Small Loan Law and an Adequate Interest Rate,” published by the Household Finance Corporation in March 1935. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 4.

  38. The New York Times. May 7, 1931. p. 1. “Robert W. DeForest, Civic Leader, Dies After Long Illness.” At the time of his death in 1931, De Forest was one of the richest 100 men in the United States. He was very well connected; in addition to serving as the Foundation’s president, he was president of the Metropolitan Museum of Art from 1913–1931, and, along with luminaries such as Theodore Roosevelt and Andrew Carnegie, served as one of the honorary vice presidents of the New York Legal Aid Society. He also founded the New York Provident Loan Society in 1895 and the New York School of Philanthropy in 1901, and served as longtime President of the New York Charity Organization Society (Crocker 2006). Other members of the Board included Gertrude S. Rice, a founder of the New York Charity Organization Society; Louisa Lee Schuyler, founder of the New York State Charities Aid Association; Cleveland H. Dodge, son of the founder of the YMCA and a leading member of the Red Cross; and Robert C. Ogden, who led Peabody Fund and General Education Board programs designed to improve public education in the South (Hammack 1994).

  39. Arthur Ham, RSF. Note to self. March 8, 1916. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 15.

  40. See, for example: Arthur Ham. November 4, 1911. “Papers read Before Charities Conference: Paper by Arthur Ham, Agent of the Russell Sage Foundation.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 4;Leon Henderson. September 2, 1925. Speech before the American Association. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 4; Rolf Nugent. November 2, 1935. “Speech by Rolf Nugent for Paramount News.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 33.

  41. See, for example: The Jersey Journal. February 28, 1913. “Say Martin Bill is Just What the Loan Sharks Want: So Says Arthur H. Ham, Expert for Interchurch Federation Which is Fighting Money Lenders.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 30; The Atlanta Constitution. July 9, 1927. “Expert Here Aids ‘Loan Shark’ War. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 16; St. Louis Globe-Democrat. May 9, 1929. “Senate Body Refuses Cut on Interest, House Okayed: Russell Sage Foundation Expert Explains Why He Had Salary-Buying Feature.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 28.

  42. Arthur Ham. September 23, 1921. “The Trend and Progress of the Movement to Improve Small Loan Conditions: Address before the Seventh Annual Convention of the American Industrial Lenders’ Association.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 2.

  43. Arthur Ham. January 20, 1914. “The Remedial Loan Movement.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 55.

  44. Arthur Ham. September 23, 1921. “The Trend and Progress of the Movement to Improve Small Loan Conditions: Address before the Seventh Annual Convention of the American Industrial Lenders’ Association.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 2.

  45. The New York Post. September 27, 1913. “Driving Out the Loan Sharks: Remedial Companies do More Than Laws, Says Report.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 37.

  46. Walter Hilborn. June 22, 1928. “W.S. Hilborn Defends Higher Interest Rates Under Small Loan Law.” St. Louis Times. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 28.

  47. Letter from Arthur Ham, RSF, to Carlton S. Pierce, New Jersey State Senate. March 19, 1913. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 30.

  48. Walter Hilborn. June 22, 1928. “W.S. Hilborn Defends Higher Interest Rates Under Small Loan Law.” St. Louis Times. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 28. See also Calder (1999).

  49. Letter from Arthur Ham, RSF, to Carlton S. pierce, New Jersey State Senate. March 19, 1913. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 30.

  50. Walter Hilborn. June 22, 1928. “W.S. Hilborn Defends Higher Interest Rates Under Small Loan Law.” St. Louis Times. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 28.

  51. See, for example: Louisville Peoples Provident Association. February 5, 1918. “The Anti-Loan Shark Bill Explained.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 21; Russell Sage Foundation. 1920. “Endorsements Urging the Passage of Senate Bill No. 95, Known as the Uniforms Small Loan Law.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 16; Household Finance Corporation. December 15, 1929. “The Uniform Small Loan Law Proposed for the District of Columbia.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 14; Illinois Association of Personal Finance Companies. 1935. “The Personal Finance Business in Illinois.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 16;

  52. See, for example: Russell Sage Foundation. 1920. “Endorsements Urging the Passage of Senate Bill No. 95, Known as the Uniforms Small Loan Law.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 16;Letter from Walter Hilborn, RSF, to W.C. Sproul, Governor of Pennsylvania. May 9, 1919. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 44 Letter from Walter Hilborn, RSF, to John M. Brooks, Chairman of the Connecticut Senate Banking Committee. March 1, 1919. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 12.

  53. Letter from Arthur Ham, RSF, to Missouri State Legislators. December 26, 1912. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 28; “Sage Foundation Agent Urges Two Percent on Loans: A.H. Ham Says Sharks Should Be Allowed That Interest Per Month” The Washington Times, July 8, 1911. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 14.

  54. Letter from Arthur Ham, RSF, to Carlton S. Pierce, New Jersey State Senate. March 19, 1913. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 30; Letter from Arthur Ham, RSF, to W.S. Finley, National Federation of Remedial Loan Societies. February 10, 1914. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 30.

  55. Agreement between the American Association and RSF, Re. USLL. November 29, 1916. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 4; Arthur Ham. September 23, 1921. “The Trend and Progress of the Movement to Improve Small Loan Conditions: Address before the Seventh Annual Convention of the American Industrial Lenders’ Association.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 2.

  56. The Jersey Observer. February 24, 1930. “Asks Foundation to Probe Small Loans: Jersey City Chamber Wants a Further Study of New State Law.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 30.

  57. Leon Henderson, RSF. March 30, 1929. “Davis Commission Report in New Jersey.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 30.

  58. Ibid. Letter from Leon Henderson, RSF, to Frank Wettstein, New Jersey General Assembly. April 19, 1929. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 32.Leon Henderson, RSF. February 21, 1930. “The New Jersey Small Loan Situation.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 31. Leon Henderson, RSF. February 17, 1930. “Excerpts from Testimony Given Before the Judiciary Committee Regarding Small Loans Bill.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 30.

  59. Letter from Leon Henderson, RSF, to Remedial Loan Societies. February 11, 1930. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 32. Letters from Remedial Loan Society Managers to Leon Henderson, RSF. February 1930. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 32.

  60. Letter from Leon Henderson, RSF, to Frank Wettstein, New Jersey General Assembly. April 19, 1929. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 32.

  61. Letter from Leon Henderson, RSF, to Remedial Loan Societies. February 11, 1930. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 32.

  62. Letter from Leon Henderson, RSF, to G. Clifford Jones, The Daily Courier. January 21, 1930. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 31.

  63. Letter from Leon Henderson, RSF, to Maude Bryan Foote, New Jersey Conference of Social Work. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 31.

  64. King, Willford Isbell. 1929. “The Small Loan Situation in New Jersey in 1929.” Trenton: New Jersey Industrial Lenders’ Association. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 32. Pace, Gore & McLaren. 1929. “Financial Aspects of the Small Loan Business in New Jersey.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 32.

  65. The New York Times. February 18, 1930. “Small Loans Bill Has First Hearing: Reduced Rate in New Jersey Assailed and Defended Before Committee.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 31.

  66. Margaret H. Hogg, RSF. February 26, 1930. “Office Memo on Examination of King Report.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 32.Anne E. Geddes, RSF. April 9, 1930. “Validity of Report of Pace, Gore and McLaren.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 34.

  67. Memo from R.G. Hurlin, RSF, to John Glenn, RSF. April 16, 1930. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 32.

  68. Memo from John Glenn, RSF, to Leon Henderson, RSF. April 19, 1930. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 32.

  69. Letter from Leon Henderson, RSF, to Warren T. King, Baltimore Association of Commerce. February 10, 1933. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 23.

  70. Report by Rolf Nugent, RSF, to D.W. Bates, Iowa Banking Board. February 14, 1935. “Expenses of Iowa Small Loan Licensees.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 18; Letter from Rolf Nugent, RSF, to L.A. Andrew , Iowa Superintendent of Banks. April 20, 1934. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 18.

  71. Memo from Walter Hilborn, RSF, to Boston Newspapers. April 20, 1920. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 24. Hilborn thought that graduated rates were “pernicious” because he believed allowing a higher rate on the smallest loans would induce loan companies to break up larger loans in order to take advantage of the higher rate. For example, if the monthly rate was 5% on loans of $50 and 3% for loans of $100, a loan company might break up a $100 loan into two separate loans and charge 5% on both.

  72. Letter from Rolf Nugent, RSF, to L.A. Andrew, Iowa Superintendent of Banks. April 20, 1934. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 18.

  73. The Hoosier Banker. October 1, 1934. “Interest Rate Charges by Small Loan Companies Reduced.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 17;

  74. Letter from Rolf Nugent, RSF, to Herman B. Wells, Indiana Department of Financial Institutions. July 19, 1934. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 17.

  75. Letter from Rolf Nugent, RSF, to L.A. Andrew, Iowa Superintendent of Banks. April 20, 1934. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 18.

  76. Letter from Rolf Nugent, RSF, to A.R. Middlekauf, Maryland Department of Banking. February 2, 1937. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 23.

  77. Letter from Rolf Nugent, RSF, to Glenn Donaldson, Colorado Assistant Attorney General. February 1, 1939. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 12.

  78. Today, only the biggest consumer finance company chains (including Household Finance Corp. and the Beneficial Loan Corp.) survive. They tend to specialize in sub-prime lending (lending to people with poor credit), and no longer serve the very poorest borrowers, who often rely on high-interest payday loan companies instead.

  79. This figure was arrived at by compiling data from the following sources: Leon Henderson. June 30, 1926. “Information Regarding Russell Sage Foundation Uniform Small Loan Laws and Similar Laws.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 4. F.B. Hubachek. August 1, 1934. “Recent Small Loan Legislation: Current Citations – Small Loan Laws.” Published by American Association of Personal Finance Companies. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 4. F.B. Hubachek. 1938. Annotations on Small Loan Laws. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Pollak Foundation for Economic Research. December 10, 1941. “Small Loan Laws of the United States.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 44. Russell Sage Foundation. August 10, 1943. Internal document prepared for 1944 World Almanac. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 44.

  80. This was true for New Jersey in 1914; Ohio in 1915; Illinois, Indiana and Utah in 1917; Maryland and Virginia in 1918; Connecticut in 1919; Iowa in 1921; Rhode Island in 1923; Michigan and West Virginia in 1925; Wisconsin in 1927; Louisiana in 1928; New York in 1932; and Vermont in 1937 (Hubachek 1938). Also true for Colorado, Idaho, and Nevada in 1943 (see marginalia in: Pollak Foundation for Economic Research. December 10, 1941. “Small Loan Laws of the United States.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 44).

  81. Skocpol (1992) also discusses institutional “fit,” but her usage of the term has to do with the degree to which the administrative structure of interest group organizations mirrors federal structure. For example, she argues that the hierarchical local-state-federal organization of women’s clubs improved their effectiveness in lobbying for woman-friendly policies at all three levels of government.

  82. Letter from Fred R. Johnson, Associated Charities of Boston, to Arthur Ham, RSF. January 28, 1916. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 24.

  83. Memo from Arthur Ham, RSF, to John Glenn, RSF. March 21, 1916. “Small Loan Legislation in Massachusetts, 1916.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 24.

  84. Boston Record. February 26, 1916. “Highest Money Rates in Union Asked in Boston Says Ham at Hearing to Regulate Loan Sharks.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 24.

  85. Arthur Ham. March 26, 1916. “Massachusetts’ Struggle with the Loan Shark.” Published in The Survey. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 24. Arthur Ham. March 1, 1916. “Hooking Our Shoals of ‘Sharks’: Facts as to the Alarming Loan Situation Here, as Caught in the Net of a Sage Foundation Expert.” In the Boston Evening Transcript. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 24.

  86. Boston Advisor. May 17, 1916. “Governor McCall Signs Small Loan Bill.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 24.

  87. Letter from H.D. Montgomery to Arthur Ham, RSF. January 6, 1915. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 25.

  88. Letter from Arthur Ham, RSF, to H.D. Montgomery. Januray 13, 1915. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 25.

  89. Letter from John E. Ryan, Detroit Provident Loan Society. To Arthur Ham, RSF. September 11, 1918. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 25.

  90. Letter from Arthur Ham, RSF, to George Brown, Michigan House of Representatives. January 24, 1919. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 25. Memo from David Gallert, Gallert & Hilborn, to John Glenn, RSF. March 5, 1919. “Mr. Gallert’s Report as to Michigan.” Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 11. Letter from Fred R. Johnson, Detroit Community Union, to Walter Hilborn, RSF. February 7, 1921. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 25. Letter from Walter Hilborn, RSF, to Fred R. Johnson, Detroit Community Union. February 8, 1921. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 25.

  91. Letter from Fred R. Johnson, Detroit Community Union, to Walter Hilborn, RSF. February 14, 1921. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 25.

  92. Letter from D.G. LaRue, Nevada Superintendent of Banks, to RSF. January 25, 1943. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 29.

  93. Letter from D.G. LaRue, Nevada Superintendent of Banks, to RSF. October 14, 1943. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 29.

  94. Letter from Rolf Nugent, RSF, to D.G. LaRue, Nevada Superintendent of Banks, October 25, 1943. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 29.

  95. Russell Sage Foundation. August 10, 1943. Internal document prepared for 1944 World Almanac. Library of Congress Russell Sage Foundation Archive, Box 44.

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Acknowledgments

Research for this article was supported by the Northwestern University Department of Sociology and the National Science Foundation (grant SES-0350606; principal investigators Bruce Carruthers and Timothy Guinnane). Daniel Beland, Kieran Bezila, Charles Camic, Tim Guinnane, Eszter Hargittai, James Mahoney, Andrei Markovits, Benjamin Page, Monica Prasad, Robyn Stryker, Berit Vannebo, Theory and Society reviewers and editors and the members of the Northwestern University Comparative and Historical Social Science Workshop all provided helpful commentary and criticism on various versions of this article. I owe special thanks to Bruce Carruthers and Ann Orloff, who patiently read multiple drafts and provided me with invaluable guidance throughout the research process.

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    Elisabeth Anderson

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Anderson, E. Experts, ideas, and policy change: the Russell Sage Foundation and small loan reform, 1909–1941. Theor Soc 37, 271–310 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-007-9050-0

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