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Stress-associated impacts of short-term holding on fishes

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Abstract

Most sources of stress in aquaculture, fish salvage, stocking programs, and commercial and sport fisheries may be unavoidable. Collecting, handling, sorting, holding, and transporting are routine practices that can have significant effects on fish physiology and survival. Nevertheless, an understanding of the stressors affecting fish holding can lead to practices that reduce stress and its detrimental effects. The stress-related effects of short-term holding are influenced by water quality, confinement density, holding container design, and agonistic and predation-associated behaviors. Physiological demands (e.g., resulting from confinement-related stresses) exceeding a threshold level where the fish can no longer compensate may lead to debilitating effects. These effects can be manifested as suppressed immune systems; decreased growth, swimming performance, or reproductive capacity; even death. Furthermore, holding tolerance may depend upon the species, life stage, previous exposure to stress, and behavior of the held fish. Water quality is one of the most important contributors to fish health and stress level. Fish may be able to tolerate adverse water quality conditions; however, when combined with other stressors, fish may be quickly overcome by the resulting physiological challenges. Temperature, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, salinity, pH, carbon dioxide, alkalinity, and hardness are the most common water quality parameters affecting physiological stress. Secondly, high fish densities in holding containers are the most common problem throughout aquaculture facilities, live-fish transfers, and fish salvage operations. Furthermore, the holding container design may also compromise the survival and immune function by affecting water quality, density and confinement, and aggressive interactions. Lastly, fishes held for relatively short durations are also influenced by negative interactions, associated with intraspecific and interspecific competition, cannibalism, predation, and determining nascent hierarchies. These interactions can be lethal (i.e., predation) or may act as a vector for pathogens to enter (i.e., bites and wounds). Predation may be a significant source of mortality for fisheries practices that do not sort by size or species while holding. Stress associated with short-term holding of fishes can have negative effects on overall health and well-being. These four aspects are major factors contributing to the physiology, behavior, and survival of fishes held for a relatively short time period.

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Acknowledgements

Parts of this review were originally published in December 2005 by the US Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation in the research series Tracy Fish Facility Studies Volume 29, “Effects of Short-term Holding on Fishes: A synthesis and Review”. We would like to thank Alex Daniels, Skyler Feltman, Rebecca Riley, Julie Roessig, Meredith Rose, Lisa Thompson, and Naomi Yoder for their help in preparing this review. The authors would also like to express their appreciation to Harry Westers, Scott Lankford, Barnaby Watten, and Doug Craft for lending their professional opinions and assistance. Financial support for this manuscript was provided by the Bureau of Reclamation Mid-Pacific Region and the Tracy Field Office.

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  1. Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616-8751, USA

    Donald E. Portz, Christa M. Woodley & Joseph J. Cech Jr.

  2. Fisheries and Wildlife Resources Group, 86-68290, Technical Service Center, Bureau of Reclamation, P.O. Box 25007, Denver, CO, 80225-0007, USA

    Donald E. Portz

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  1. Donald E. Portz
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Correspondence to Donald E. Portz.

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Portz, D.E., Woodley, C.M. & Cech, J.J. Stress-associated impacts of short-term holding on fishes. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries 16, 125–170 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-006-9012-z

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