Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Chemical-based fecal source tracking methods: current status and guidelines for evaluation

  • Review Paper
  • Published:
Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Fecal source tracking is a rapidly evolving field for which there have been a number of method evaluation studies, workshops, review articles and a book that synthesize information about method efficacy. Chemicals that are specific to human wastewater offer several potential advantages over biologically based methods, but have received less scrutiny. More than 35 chemical analytes have been found to consistently occur in human waste streams and here we review these potential human-origin indicators in context of seven evaluation criteria. Some chemical methods offer advantages over microbial methods: they are generally faster to prepare and analyze, more source-specific because they are not confounded by regrowth in the environment, and some may be more geographically and temporally stable. However, they often require specialized equipment and are usually more expensive regarding sample preparation and analysis. Additionally, most chemicals that are specific to human waste-streams occur at concentrations low enough to be diluted below detection limits once the waste-stream enters the ambient environment. These two factors will likely result in chemical measures being used more often as cross-validation supplements or initial screening approaches, rather than replacements for microbial measures. Cross-validation supplements include several chemicals that are highly specific to human sources and can be important contributors when certainties about human sources are critical, such as in drinking water applications. At least one set of chemicals, fecal sterols and stanols, may have potential for identification of other sources in addition to humans. Of all the chemicals examined to date, optical brighteners (OBs) in detergents have shown considerable promise, especially for screening purposes. Optical brighteners are not as sensitive as most microbial assessments, but can be measured with a hand-held fluorometer, providing near real-time and relatively inexpensive tracking of signals in the field, if the human fecal source contains an OB concentration large enough to produce a measurable signal.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • APHA (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 21st edn. American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Atherholt T (2005) Technology critique: microbial source tracking: library based methods. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Science, Research, and Technology, Trenton, p 11

    Google Scholar 

  • Binzcik GA, Gates JL, Gray LE Jr, Guilette LJ Jr, Horton MK, Kolok AS, Lambright CS, Orlando EF, Soto AM (2004) Endocrine-disrupting effects of cattle feedlot effluent on an aquatic sentinel species, the fathead minnow. Environ Health Perspect 112:353–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanch AR, Belanche-Munoz L, Bonjoch X, Ebdon J, Gantzer C, Lucena F, Ottoson J, Kourtis C, Iverson A, Kuhn I, Moce L, Muniesa M, Schwartzbrod J, Skraber S, Papageorgiou GT, Taylor H, Wallis J, Jofre J (2006) Integrated analysis of established and novel microbial and chemical methods for microbial source tracking. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:5915–5926

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boehm AB, Ashbolt NJ, Colford JM, Dunbar LE, Fleming LE, Gold MA, Hansel JA, Hunter PR, Ichida AM, McGee CD, Soller JA, Weisberg SB (2009) A sea change ahead for recreational water quality criteria. J Water Health 7:9–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolz U, Hagenmaiser H, Komer W (2001) Phenolic xenoestrogens in surface water, sediments, and sewage sludge from Baden–Wurttemberg, south-west Germany. Environ Pollut 115:291–301

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boving TB, Meritt DL, Boothroyd JC (2004) Fingerprinting sources of bacterial input into small residential watersheds: fate of fluorescent whitening agents. Environ Geol 46:228–232

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brun GL, Bernier M, Losier R, Doe K, Jackman P, Lee HB (2006) Pharmaceutically active compounds in Atlantic Canadian sewage treatment plant effluents and receiving waters, and potential for environmental effects as measured by acute and chronic aquatic toxicity. Environ Toxicol Chem 25:2163–2176

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buerge IJ, Buser HR, Muller MD, Poiger T (2003a) Behavior of the polycyclic musks HHCB and AHTN in lakes, two potential anthropogenic markers for domestic wastewater in surface waters. Environ Sci Technol 37:5636–5644

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buerge IJ, Poiger T, Muller MD, Buser HR (2003b) Caffeine, an anthropogenic marker for wastewater contamination of surface waters. Environ Sci Technol 37:691–700

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buerge IJ, Buser H-R, Kahle M, Muler MD, Poiger T (2009) Ubiquitous occurrence of the artificial sweetener acesulfame in the aquatic environment: an ideal chemical marker of domestic wastewater in groundwater. Environ Sci Technol 43:4381–4385

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bull ID, Lockheart MJ, Elhmmali MM, Roberts DJ, Evershed RP (2002) The origin of faeces by means of biomarker detection. Environ Int 27:647–654

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bull ID, Elhmmali MM, Roberts DJ, Evershed RP (2003) The application of steroidal biomarkers to track the abandonment of a roman wastewater course at the Agora (Athens, Greece). Archaeometry 45:149–161

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buser HR, Poiger T, Muller MD (1999) Occurrence and environmental behavior of the chiral pharmaceutical drug ibuprofen in surface waters and in wastewater. Environ Sci Technol 33:2529–2535

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cao Y, Griffith JF, Weisberg SB (2009) Evaluation of optical brightener photodecay characteristics for detection of human fecal contamination. Water Res 43:2273–2279

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chan KH, Lam MHW, Poon KF, Yeung HY, Chiu TKT (1998) Application of sedimentary fecal stanols and sterols in tracing sewage pollution in coastal water. Water Res 32:225–235

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen Z, Pavelic P, Dillon P, Naidu R (2002) Determination of caffeine as a tracer of sewage effluent in natural waters by on-line solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. Water Res 36:4830–4838

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clara M, Strenn B, Kreuzinger N (2004) Carbamazepine as a possible anthropogenic marker in the aquatic environment: investigations on the behaviour of carbamazepine in wastewater treatment and during groundwater infiltration. Water Res 38:947–954

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Close ME, Hodgson LR, Tod G (1989) Field evaluation of fluorescent whitening agents and sodium tripolyphosphate as indicators of septic tank contamination in domestic wells. NZ J Mar Fresh Res 23:563–568

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • da Costa RL, Carreira RS (2005) A comparison between faecal sterols and coliform counts in the investigation of sewage contamination in sediments. Braz J Oceanogr 53:157–167

    Google Scholar 

  • Devereux R, Rublee P, Paul JH, Field KG, Santo Domingo JW (2006) Development and applications of microbial ecogenomic indicators for monitoring water quality: report of a workshop assessing the state of the science, research needs, and future directions. Environ Monit Assess 116:459–479

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dickerson JW Jr, Hagedorn C, Hassall A (2007) Detection and remediation of human-origin pollution at two public beaches in Virginia using multiple source tracking methods. Water Res 41:3758–3770

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon LK, Taylor HM, Staugler E, Scudera JO (2005) Development of a fluorescence method to detect optical brighteners in the presence of varying concentrations of fluorescent humic substances: identifying regions in influenced by OSTDS in the estuarine waters of Charlotte Harbor. Mote Marine Laboratory Technical Report No. 1045

  • Edwards DD, McFeters GA, Venkatesan MI (1998) Distribution of Clostridium perfringens and fecal sterols in a benthic coastal marine environment influenced by the sewage outfall from McMurdo Station. Antarctica Appl Environ Microbiol 64:2596–2600

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elhmmali MM, Roberts DJ, Evershed RP (2000) Combined analysis of bile acids and sterols/stanols from riverine particulates to assess sewage discharges and other fecal sources. Environ Sci Technol 34:39–46

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evershed RP, Bethell PH (1996) Application of multimolecular biomarker techniques to the identification of faecal material in archaeological soils and sediments. ACS Symp Ser 625:157–172

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fent K, Weston AA, Caminada D (2006) Ecotoxicology of human pharmaceuticals. Aquat Toxicol 76:122–159

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Field KG, Brodeur TJ (2003) Molecular approaches to microbiological monitoring: fecal source detection. Environ Monit Assess 81:313–326

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Field KG, Samadpour M (2007) Fecal source tracking, the indicator paradigm, and managing water quality. Water Res 41:3517–3538

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fono LJ, Sedlack DL (2005) Use of the chiral pharmaceutical propranolol to identify sewage discharges into surface waters. Environ Sci Technol 39:9244–9252

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilpin BJ, Gregor JE, Savill MG (2002) Identification of the source of faecal pollution in contaminated rivers. Water Sci Technol 46:9–15

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glassmeyer ST, Furlong ET, Kolpin DW, Cahill JD, Zaugg SD, Werner SL, Meyer MT, Kryak DD (2005) Transport of chemical and microbial compounds from known wastewater discharges: potential for use as indicators of human fecal contamination. Environ Sci Technol 39:5157–5169

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gregor J, Garrett N, Gilpin B, Randall C, Saunders D (2002) Use of classification and regression tree (CART) analysis with chemical faecal indicators to determine sources of contamination. NZ J Mar Freshw Res 36:387–398

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith JF, Weisberg SB, McGee CD (2003) Evaluation of microbial source tracking methods using mixed fecal sources in aqueous test samples. J Water Health 1:141–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimalt JO, Fernandez P, Bayona JM, Albaiges J (1990) Assessment of fecal sterols and ketones as indicators of urban sewage inputs to coastal waters. Environ Sci Technol 24:357–363

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haack SK, Duris JW, Fogarty LR, Kolpin DW, Focazio MJ, Furlong ET, Meyer MT (2009) Comparing wastewater chemicals, indicator bacteria concentrations, and bacterial pathogen genes as fecal pollution indicators. J Environ Qual 38:248–258

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagedorn C, Reneau RB Jr, Saluta M, Chapman A (2003) Impact of onsite wastewater systems on water quality in coastal regions. Virginia coastal resources management program memorandum of agreement 50312–01-13-PT. Virginia Dept. of Conservation and Recreation, Richmond

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagedorn C, Saluta M, Hassall A & Dickerson J (2005a) Fluorometric detection of optical brighteners as an indicator of human sources of water pollution. Part I. Description and detection of optical brighteners. Crop & Soil Environmental News, online http://filebox.vt.edu/users/chagedor/biol_4684/BST/OB%20Article-I.pdf. Accessed 24 June 2009.

  • Hagedorn C, Saluta M, Hassall A & Dickerson J (2005b) Fluorometric detection of optical brighteners as an indicator of human sources of water pollution. Part II. Development as a source tracking methodology in open waters. Crop & Soil Environmental News, online http://filebox.vt.edu/users/chagedor/biol_4684/BST/OB%20Article-II.pdf. Accessed 24 June 2009

  • Hartel PG, Hagedorn C, McDonald JL, Fisher JA, Saluta MA, Dickerson JW Jr, Gentit LC, Smith SL, Mantripragada NS, Ritter KJ, Belcher CN (2007) Exposing water samples to ultraviolet light improves fluorometry for detecting human fecal contamination. Water Res 41:3629–3642

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hayashi Y, Managaki S, Takada H (2002) Fluorescent whitening agents in Tokyo Bay and adjacent rivers: their application as anthropogenic molecular markers in coastal environments. Environ Sci Technol 36:3556–3563

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hilton HJ, Thomas KV (2003) Determination of selected human pharmaceutical compounds in effluent and surface water samples by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 1015:129–141

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Isobe KO, Tarao M, Chiem NH, Minh LY, Takada H (2004) Effect of environmental factors on the relationship between concentrations of coprostanol and fecal indicator bacteria in tropical (Mekong Delta) and temperate (Tokyo) freshwaters. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:814–821

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson A, Carey B, Golding S (2004) Results of a screening analysis for pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment plant effluents, wells, and creeks in the Sequim-Dungeness area. Environmental Assessment Program, Olympia, Washington 98504-7710. Publication No: 04-03-051

  • Katz BG, Griffin DW, Davis JH (2009) Groundwater quality impacts from the land application of treated municipal wastewater in a large karstic spring basin: chemical and microbiological indicators. Sci Total Environ 407:2872–2886

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer JB, Canonica S, Hoigne J (1996) Degradation of fluorescent whitening agents in sunlit natural waters. Environ Sci Technol 30:2227–2234

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • LeBlanc LA, Latimer JS, Ellis JT, Quinn JG (1992) The geochemistry of coprostanol in waters and surface sediments from Narragansett Bay. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 34:439–458

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leeming R, Nichols PD (1996) Concentration of coprostanol that correspond to existing bacterial indicator guideline limits. Water Res 30:2997–3006

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leeming R, Ball A, Ashbolt N, Nichols P (1996) Using faecal sterols from humans and animals to distinguish faecal pollution in receiving waters. Water Res 30:2893–2900

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leeming R, Latham V, Rayner M, Nichols P (1997) Detecting and distinguishing sources of sewage pollution in Australian inland and coastal waters and sediments. ACS Symp Ser 671:306–319

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald IA, Bokkenheuser VD, Winter J, McLernon AM, Mosbach EH (1983) Degradation of fecal sterols in the human gut. J Lipid Res 24:675–694

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maldonaldo C, Dachs J, Bayona JM (1999) Trialkylamines and coprostanol as tracers of urban pollution in waters from enclosed seas: the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Environ Sci Technol 33:3290–3296

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald JL, Hartel PG, Gentit LC, Belcher CN, Gates KW, Rodgers K, Fisher JA, Smith KA, Payne KA (2006) Identifying sources of fecal contamination inexpensively with targeted sampling and bacterial source tracking. J Environ Qual 35:889–897

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meays CL, Broersma K, Nordin R, Mazumder A (2004) Source tracking fecal bacteria in water: a critical review of current methods. J Environ Manag 73:71–79

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakada N, Kiri K, Shinohara H, Harada A, Kuroda K, Takizawa S, Takada H (2008) Evaluation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products as water-soluble markers of sewage. Environ Sci Technol 42:6347–6353

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noble RT, Allen SM, Blackwood AD, Chu W, Jiang SC, Lovelace GL, Sobsey MD, Stewart JF, Wait DA (2003) Use of viral pathogens and indicators to differentiate between human and non-human fecal contamination in a microbial source tracking comparison study. J Water Health 1:195–207

    Google Scholar 

  • Noblet JA, Young DL, Zeng EY, Ensari S (2004) Use of fecal steroids to infer the sources of fecal indicator bacteria in the Lower Santa Ana River Watershed, California: sewage is unlikely a significant source. Environ Sci Technol 38:6002–6008

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paxéus N, Schröder HF (1996) Screening for non-regulated organic compounds in municipal wastewater in Göteborg, Sweden. Water Sci Technol 33:9–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Peeler KA, Opsahl SP, Chanton JP (2006) Tracking anthropogenic inputs using caffeine, indicator bacteria, and nutrients in rural freshwater and urban marine systems. Environ Sci Technol 40:7616–7622

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poiger T, Field JA, Field TM, Siegrist H, Giger W (1998) Behavior of fluorescent whitening agents during sewage treatment. Water Res 32:1939–1947

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pond KR, Rangdale R, Meijer WG, Brandao J, Falcāo L, Rince A, Masterson B, Greaves J, Gawler A, McDonnell E, Cronin A, Pedley S (2004) Workshop report: developing pollution source tracking for recreational and shellfish waters. Environ Forensics 5:237–247

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rangdale RE, Meijer W, Rincé A, Brandão J, Falcão L, Machado J, Nogueira C, Rosado ML , Veríssimo C (2003) Development of methods for pollution source tracking-consolidated literature review. Completed for Environment Agency North West Region INTERREG IIIB Atlantic Area Programme Improved Coastal & Recreational Waters (ICReW)

  • Roberts PH, Thomas KV (2006) The occurrence of selected pharmaceuticals in wastewater effluent and surface waters of the lower Tyne catchment. Sci Total Environ 56:143–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Sankararamakrishnan N, Guo Q (2005) Chemical tracers as indicator of human fecal coliforms at storm water outfalls. Environ Int 31:1133–1140

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Santo Domingo JW, Sadowsky MJ (2007) Microbial source tracking. ASM Press, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott TM, Rose JB, Jenkins TM, Farrah SR, Lukasik J (2002) Microbial source tracking: current methodology and future directions. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:5796–5803

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seiler RL, Zaugg SD, Thomas JM, Harcroft DL (1999) Caffeine and pharmaceuticals as indicators of wastewater contamination in wells. Ground Water 37:405–410

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seurinck S, Verstraete W, Siciliano SD (2005) Microbial source tracking for identification of fecal pollution. Rev Environ Sci Bio/Technol 4:19–37

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siegener R, Chen RF (2002) Caffeine in Boston Harbor seawater. Mar Pollut Bull 44:383–387

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shah VG, Dunstan RH, Geary PM, Coombes P, Roberts TK, Nagy-Felsobuki EV (2007) Evaluating potential applications of fecal sterols in distinguishing sources of faecal contamination from mixed faecal samples. Water Res 41:3667–3674

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shu WC, Ding WH (2005) Determination of fluorescent whitening agents in laundry detergents and surface waters by solid-phase extraction and ion-pair high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A 1–2:218–223

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons GM, Herbein SA, James CM (1995) Managing nonpoint fecal coliform sources to tidal inlets. Water Resour Update 100:64–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoeckel DM, Harwood VJ (2007) Performance, design, and analysis in microbial source tracking studies. Appl Environ Microbiol 73:2405–2415

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stoeckel DM, Mathes MV, Hyer KE, Hagedorn C, Kator H, Lukasik J, O’Brien TL, Fenger TW, Samadpour M, Strickler KM, Wiggins BA (2004) Comparison of seven protocols to identify fecal contamination sources using Escherichia coli. Environ Sci Technol 38:6109–6117

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Temes TA, Andersen H, Gilberg D, Bonerz M (2002) Determination of estrogens in sludge and sediments by liquid extraction and GC/MS/MS. Anal Chem 74:3498–3504

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas KV, Hilton MJ (2004) The occurrence of selected human pharmaceutical compounds in UK estuaries. Mar Pollut Bull 49:436–444

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tolosa I, LeBlond N, Copin-Montégut C, Marty JC, de Mora S, Prieur L (2003) Distribution of sterol and fatty alcohol biomarkers in particulate matter from the frontal structure of the Alboran Sea (SW Mediterranean Sea). Mar Chem 82:161–183

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • USEPA (2005) Microbial source tracking guide document. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati EPA/600-R-05-064

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA (2007) Experts Scientific workshop on critical research needs for the development of new or revised recreational water quality criteria. EPA 823-R-07-006, June 2007, online http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/recreation/experts/index.html

  • Vogel JR, Stoeckel DM, Lamendella R, Zelt RB, Santo Domingo JW, Walke SR, Oerther DB (2007) Identifying fecal sources in a selected catchment reach using multiple source-tracking tools. J Environ Qual 36:718–729

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weigel S, Berger U, Jensen E, Kallenborn R, Thoresen H, Huhnerfuss H (2004) Determination of selected pharmaceuticals and caffeine in sewage and seawater from Tromsø/Norway with emphasis on ibuprofen and its metabolites. Chemosphere 56:583–592

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe TM (1995) A comparison of fecal coliform densities and fluorescent intensities in Murrells Inlet, a highly urbanized estuary and in North Inlet, a pristine forested estuary. M.S. thesis. University of South Carolina, Columbia

  • Wu J, Yue J, Hu R, Yang Z, Zhang L (2008) Use of caffeine and human pharmaceutical compounds to identify sewage contamination. Proc World Acad Sci Eng Tech 34:2070–3740

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 330 Smyth Hall, Blacksburg, VA, 24061-0404, USA

    Charles Hagedorn

  2. Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Blvd., Costa Mesa, CA, 92626, USA

    Stephen B. Weisberg

Authors
  1. Charles Hagedorn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stephen B. Weisberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Charles Hagedorn.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hagedorn, C., Weisberg, S.B. Chemical-based fecal source tracking methods: current status and guidelines for evaluation. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 8, 275–287 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-009-9162-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-009-9162-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation