Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Diagnosis and Treatment of Mood Disorders in Adults with Developmental Disabilities

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Psychiatric Quarterly Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

While the idea that individuals with developmental disabilities (DD) can suffer from mental illness has been largely accepted since the late 1980’s, this is still an underserved and poorly studied population. In particular, mood disorders have traditionally been misdiagnosed, under-recognized and poorly treated. Through the years, reported rates of mood disorders in adults with DD have varied widely. Recent epidemiological studies have focused on community samples and find rates of mood disorders from 3 to 8.1%. Mood disorders are found to be more prevalent than psychotic disorders or anxiety disorders. The empirical literature on assessment of mood symptoms in adults with DD is limited, particularly in individuals with severe and profound DD. Several tools have been developed to assist in identification and diagnosis. However, the work on their psychometric properties and validity studies is still quite limited. The treatment literature is sparse and focused primarily on pharmacotherapy. This review considers the epidemiology and diagnosis of mood disorders in individuals with DD. Recent developments in assessment are reviewed. The literature regarding pharmacological treatment with antidepressants, mood stabilizers, electroconvulsive therapy and antipsychotics is summarized and the current state of psychological treatments for mood disorders in persons with DD is presented. Implications for clinical care and future research are considered.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Baumeister H, Harter M: Prevalence of mental disorders based on general population surveys. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology 42(7):537–546, 2007. doi:10.1007/s00127-007-0204-1

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Reiss S, Levitan GW, McNally RJ: Emotionally disturbed mentally retarded people: an underserved population. American Psychologist 37:361–367, 1982. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.37.4.361

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Bouras N, Szymanski L: Services for people with mental retardation and psychiatric disorders: US-UK comparative overview. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 43(1):64–71, 1997. doi:10.1177/002076409704300106

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Sovner R, Hurley AD: Do the mentally retarded suffer from affective illness? Archives of General Psychiatry 40(1):61–67, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Hurley AD: Mood disorders in intellectual disability. [Review] [26 refs] Current Opinion in Psychiatry 19(5):465–469, 2006. doi:10.1097/01.yco.0000238471.84206.0a

  6. Borthwick-Duffy SA: Epidemiology and prevalence of psychopathology in persons with mental retardation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 62:17–27, 1994. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.62.1.17

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Linaker OM, Nitter R: Psychopathology in institutionalized mentally retarded adults. British Journal of Psychiatry 156:522–525, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. King BH, DeAntonio C, McCracken JT, et al.: Psychiatric consultation in severe and profound mental retardation. American Journal of Psychiatry 151:1802–1808, 1994

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Smiley E: Epidemiology of mental health problems in adults with learning disability: an update. Advances in Psychiatric Research 11:214–222, 2005. doi:10.1192/apt.11.3.214

    Google Scholar 

  10. Tsakanikos E, Sturmey P, Costello H: Referral trends in mental health services for adults with intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders. Autism 11(1):9–17, 2007. doi:10.1177/1362361307070987

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Bouras N, Cowley A, Holt G: Referral trends of people with intellectual disabilities and psychiatric disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities Research 47:439–446, 2003. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00514.x

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Hurley AD, Folstein M, Lam N: Patients with and without intellectual disability seeking outpatient psychiatric services: diagnoses and prescribing pattern. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 47(1):39–50, 2003. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00463.x

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Cooper SA, Smiley E, Morrison J, et al.: Mental ill-health in adults with intellectual disabilities: prevalence and associated factors. British Journal of Psychiatry 190:27–35, 2007. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.106.022483

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Sparrow SS, Balla DA, Cicchetti DV: A revision of the Vineland Social Maturity Scale by EA Doll. American Guidance Service, 1984

  15. Cooper SA: Epidemiology of psychiatric disorders in elderly compared with younger adults with learning disabilities. British Journal of Psychiatry 170:375–380, 1997

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Sturmey P: DSM-IIIR and persons with dual diagnosis: conceptual issues and strategies for future research. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 39:357–364, 1995

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Einfeld SL, Tonge BJ: Observations on the use of the ICD-10 guide for mental retardation. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 45:408–412, 1999. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2788.1999.043005408.x

    Google Scholar 

  18. Reiss S, Levitan GW, Szyskzo J: Emotional disturbances and mental retardation: diagnostic overshadowing. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 86:567–574, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Kellett S, Beail N, Newman DW, et al.: Utility of the brief symptom inventory in the assessment of psychological distress. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 16:127–134, 2003. doi:10.1046/j.1468-3148.2003.00152.x

    Google Scholar 

  20. Kellett S, Beail N, Newman DW, et al.: Indexing psychological distress in people with an intellectual disability: use of the symptom checklist-90-R. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 12(4):323–334, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  21. Kellett S, Beail N, Newman DW, et al.: The factor structure of the brief symptom inventory: intellectual disability evidence. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 11:275–281, 2004. doi:10.1002/cpp.410

    Google Scholar 

  22. Glenn E, Bihm EM, Lammers WJ: Depression, anxiety and relevant cognitions in persons with mental retardation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 33(1):69–76, 2003. doi:10.1023/A:1022282521625

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Beck AT, Steer, RA: Beck Anxiety Inventory Manual. San Antonio, TX, The Psychological Corporation, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  24. Reynolds WM, Graves A: Reliability of children’s reports of depressive symptomatology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 17:647–655, 1989. doi:10.1007/BF00917728

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Hollon SD, Kendall PC: Cognitive self-statements in depression: development of an automatic thoughts questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research 4:383–395, 1980. doi:10.1007/BF01178214

    Google Scholar 

  26. Beck AT, Brown G, Steer RA, et al.: Differentiating anxiety and depression: a test of the cognitive content-specificity hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 96:179–183, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Powell R: Psychometric properties of the Beck depression inventory and the Zung self rating depression scale in adults with mental retardation. Mental Retardation 41(2):88–95, 2003. doi:10.1352/0047-6765(2003)041<0088:PPOTBD>2.0.CO;2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Lunsky Y: Depressive symptoms in intellectual disability: does gender play a role? Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 47(6):417–427, 2003. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00516.x

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Birleson P: The validity of depressive disorder in childhood and the development of a self-rating scale: a research report. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 22:73–88, 1981. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1981.tb00533.x

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Lunsky Y, Benson BA: Reliability of ratings of consumers with mental retardation and their staff on multiple measures of social support. American Journal on Mental Retardation 102:280–284, 1997. doi:10.1352/0895-8017(1997)102<0280:ROROCW>.0.CO;2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Chadsey-Rusch J, DeStefano L, O’Reilly M, et al.: Assessing the loneliness of workers with mental retardation. Mental Retardation 30:85–92, 1992

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Bramston P, Fogarty G, Cummins RA: The nature of stressors reported by people with an intellectual disability. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 12:1–10, 1999

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Jahoda A, Pert C, Squire J, et al.: Facing stress and conflict: a comparison of the predicted responses and self-concepts of aggressive and nonaggressive people with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 42, 360–369, 1998. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2788.1998.00143.x

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Reiss S: The Reiss Screen for Maladaptive Behavior Test Manual. IDS Publishing, Worthington, OH, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  35. Cuthill FM, Espie CA, Cooper SA: Development and psychometric properties of the Glasgow depression scale for people with a learning disability. British Journal of Psychiatry 182, 347–353, 2003. doi:10.1192/bjp.182.4.347

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Marshall K, Willoughby-Booth S: Modifying the clinical outcomes in routine evaluation measure for use with people who have a learning disability. British Journal of Learning Disabilities 35, 107–112, 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3156.2006.00422.x

    Google Scholar 

  37. Ross E, Oliver C: The assessment of mood in adults who have severe or profound mental retardation. Clinical Psychology Review 23, 225–245, 2003. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(02)00202-7

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Senatore V, Matson JL, Kazdin AD: An inventory to assess psychopathology of mentally retarded adults. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 89, 459–466, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Sturmey P, Bertman LJ: Validity of the Reiss Screen for maladaptive behavior. American Journal on Mental Retardation 99, 201–206, 1994

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Sturmey P, Burcham KJ, Perkings TS: The Reiss screen for maladaptive behavior: its reliability and internal consistencies. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities Research 39, 191–195, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  41. Moss SC, Patel P, Prosser H, et al.: Psychiatric morbidity in older people with moderate and severe learning disability (mental retardation): part I development and reliability of the patient interview (PASS-ADD). British Journal of Psychiatry 163, 471–480, 1993

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Moss SC, Ibbotson B, Prosser H, et al.: Validity of the PAS-ADD for detecting psychiatric symptoms in adults with learning disability (mental retardation). Journal of Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 32, 344–354, 1997. doi:10.1007/BF00805440

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Matson JL: The Diagnostic Assessment for the Severely Handicapped II. Baton Rouge, LA, USA, Scientific Publishers, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  44. Paclawskyj TR, Matson JL, Bamburg JW, et al.: A comparison of the Diagnostic Assessment for the Severely Handicapped (DASH-II) and the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC). Research in Mental Retardation 18, 289–298, 1997

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Aman MG, Singh, NN: Manual for the Aberrant Behavior Checklist. NY, USA, Slosson Educational Publications, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  46. Matson JL, Rush KS, Hamilton M, et al.: Characteristics of depression as assessed by the Diagnostic Assessment for the Severely Handicapped (DASH-II). Research in Mental Retardation 20, 305–313, 1999

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Meins W: A new depression scale designed for use with adults with mental retardation. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 40, 222–226, 1996. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.1996.tb00625.x

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Esbensen AJ, Rohahn J, Aman MG, et al.: Reliability and validity of an assessment instrument for anxiety, depression, and mood among individuals with mental retardation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 33, 617–629, 2003. doi:10.1023/B:JADD.0000005999.27178.55

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Ross E, Oliver C: Preliminary analysis of the psychometric properties of the Mood, Interest & Pleasure Questionnaire (MIPQ) for adults with severe and profound learning disabilities. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 42:81–93, 2003. doi:10.1348/014466503762842039

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. American Psychiatric Association Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Major Depressive Disorder, 2nd edn. Working Group on Major Depressive Disorder, 2000

  51. American Psychiatric Association Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Bipolar Disorder, 2nd edn. Working Group on Bipolar Disorder, 2002

  52. Lunsky Y, Palucka AM: Depression in intellectual disability. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 17, 359–363, 2004. doi:10.1097/01.yco.0000139970.52813.f2

    Google Scholar 

  53. Aman MG, Crismon ML, Frances A, et al.: Treatment of psychiatric and behavioral problems in individuals with mental retardation: an update of the expert consensus guidelines. Expert Consensus Guidelines, 2004

  54. Sovner R, Fox CJ, Lowry MI, et al.: Fluoxetine treatment of depression and associated self-injury in two adults with mental retardation. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 37, 301–311, 1993

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Masi G, Marcheschi M, Pfanner P: Paroxetine in depressed adolescents with intellectual disability: an open label study. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 41(3), 268–272, 1997. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.1997.tb00707.x

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Montgomery SA, Asberg M: A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. British Journal of Psychiatry 39:41–45, 1979

    Google Scholar 

  57. Verhoeven WMA, Veendrik-Meekes MJ, Jacobs GAJ, et al.: Citalopram in mentally retarded patients with depression: a long-term clinical investigation. European Psychiatry 16:104–108, 2001. doi:10.1016/S0924-9338(01)00546-6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Guy W: Early Clinical Drug Evaluation (ECDEU) Assessment Manual. Rockville, MD, National Institute on Mental Health, 1976

    Google Scholar 

  59. Janowsky DS, Shetty M, Barnhill J, et al.: Serotonergic antidepressant effects on aggressive, self-injurious and destructive/disruptive behaviours in intellectually disabled adults: a retrospective, open-label, naturalistic trial. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 8, 37–48, 2005. doi:10.1017/S146114570400481X

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Kastner T, Finesmith R, Walsh K: Long term administration of valproic acid in the treatment of affective symptoms in people with mental retardation. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 13(6), 448–451, 1993. doi:10.1097/00004714-199312000-00012

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Verhoeven WMA, Tuinier S: Cyclothymia or unstable mood disorder? A systematic treatment evaluation with valproic acid. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 14, 147–154, 2001. doi:10.1046/j.1468-3148.2001.00063.x

    Google Scholar 

  62. Vanstraelen M, Tyrer SP: Rapid cycling bipolar affective disorder in people with intellectual disability: a systematic review. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 43(5), 349–359, 1999. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2788.1999.043005349.x

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Reid AH, Naylor GJ: Short-cycle manic depressive psychosis in mental defectives: a clinical and physiological study. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 20, 67–76, 1976

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Jones PM, Berney TP: Early onset rapid cycling bipolar affective disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 28, 731–738, 1987. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1987.tb01555.x

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Linter CM: Short-cycle manic depressive psychosis in a mentally handicapped child without family history: case report. British Journal of Psychiatry 151, 554–555, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. McCracken JT, Diamond RP: Case study: bipolar disorder in mentally retarded adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 27, 494–499, 1988. doi:10.1097/00004583-198807000-00020

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Kerbeshian J, Burd L, Randall T, et al.: Case report: autism, profound mental retardation and atypical bipolar disorder in 33 year old female with a deletion of 15q12. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 34, 205–210, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  68. Sovner R: Divalproex-responsive rapid cycling bipolar disorder in a patient with Down’s syndrome: implications for the Down’s syndrome-mania hypothesis. Journal of Mental Deficiency Research 35, 171–173, 1991

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Lowry MA, Sovner R: Severe behaviour problems associated with rapid cycling bipolar disorder in two adults with profound mental retardation. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 36, 269–281, 1992

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Jan JE, Abroms IF, Freeman RD, et al.: Rapid cycling in severely multidisabled children: a form of bipolar affective disorder. Pediatric Neurology 10, 34–39, 1994. doi:10.1016/0887-8994(94)90064-7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Naylor GJ, Donald JM, Le Poidevin D, et al.: A double-blind trial of long-term lithium therapy in mental defectives. British Journal of Psychiatry 124, 52–57, 1974

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Osborne JG, Baggs AW, Darvish R, et al.: Cyclical self injurious behaviour, contingent water mist treatment and the possibility of rapid cycling bipolar disorder. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 23, 325–334, 1992. doi:10.1016/0005-7916(92)90056-O

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Fukuda K, Etoh T, Okuma T: Affective disorder in the mentally retarded adolescents: report of two cases with lithium treatment. Japanese Journal of Psychiatry and Neurology 40, 551–557, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Glue P: Rapid cycling affective disorder in the mentally retarded. Biological Psychiatry 26, 250–256, 1989. doi:10.1016/0006-3223(89)90037-1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Sovner R: The use of valproate in the treatment of mentally retarded persons with typical and atypical bipolar disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 50(3), 4043, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  76. Wieseler NA, Campbell GJ, Sonis W: Ongoing use of an affective rating scale in the treatment of a mentally retarded individual with a rapid-cycling bipolar affective disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities 9, 47–53, 1988. doi:10.1016/0891-4222(88)90019-4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Carta MG, Hardoy MC, Hardoy MJ, et al.: Adjunctive gabapentin in patients with intellectual disability and bipolar spectrum disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 45(2), 139–145, 2001. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2788.2001.00330.x

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. La Malfa GP, Parigi A, Hardoy MC, et al.: Psychopathology and mental retardation: an Italian epidemiological study using the PIMRA. Research in Developmental Disabilities 18, 179–184, 1997. doi:10.1016/S0891-4222(97)00002-4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Janowsky DS, Kraus JE, Barnhill J, et al.: Effects of Topiramate on aggressive, self-injurious, and disruptive/destructive behaviors in the intellectually disabled: an open-label retrospective study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 23(5), 500–504, 2003. doi:10.1097/01.jcp.0000088906.24613.76

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Kho KH, van Vreeswijk MF, Simpson S, Zwinderman AH: A meta-analysis of electroconvulsive therapy efficacy in depression. Journal of ECT 19(3), 139–147, 2003. doi:10.1097/00124509-200309000-00005

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Kessler RJ: Electroconvulsive therapy for affective disorders in persons with mental retardation. Psychiatric Quarterly 75(1), 99–104, 2004. doi:10.1023/B:PSAQ.0000007564.35985.55

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Payne R: The psychotic subnormal. Journal of Mental Subnormality 14:25–34, 1969

    Google Scholar 

  83. Lazarus A, Jaffe RL, Dubin WR: Electroconvulsive therapy and major depression in Down’s syndrome. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 51:422–425, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Merrill RD: ECT for a patient with profound mental retardation. American Journal of Psychiatry 147:256–257, 1990

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Purri, BK, Langa A, Coleman RM, et al.: The clinical efficacy of maintenance electroconvulsive therapy in a patient with a mild mental handicap. British Journal of Psychiatry 161:707–709, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  86. Jancar J, Gunaratane IJ: Dysthymia and mental handicap. British Journal of Psychiatry 164:691–693, 1994

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Bebchuk JM, Barnhill JH, Dawkins K: ECT and mental retardation. American Journal of Psychiatry 153:1231, 1996

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Bates WJ, Smeltzer DJ: Electroconvulsive treatment of psychotic self-injurious behavior in a patient with mental retardation. American Journal of Psychiatry 13:1355–1366, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  89. Guze BH, Weinman B, Diamond RP: Use of ECT to treat bipolar depression in a mental retardate with cerebral palsy. Convulsive Therapy 3:60–64, 1987

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Kearns A: Cotard’s syndrome in a mentally handicapped man. British Journal of Psychiatry 150:112–114, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Goldstein MZ, Jensvold MF: ECT treatment of an elderly mentally retarded man. Psychosomatics 28:104–106, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  92. Warren AC, Holroyd S, Folstein MF: Major depression in down’s syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry 155:202–205, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Karvounis S, Holt G, Hodgkiss A: ECT for depression in a man with moderate learning disability: British Journal of Psychiatry 161:426–427, 1992

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Ruedrich SL, Alamir S: Electroconvulsive therapy for persons with developmental disabilities: review, case report and recommendations. Mental Health Aspects of Developmental Disabilities 2:83–91, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  95. Buzan RD, Dubovsky SL, Firestone D, et al.: Use of clozapine in 10 mentally retarded adults. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 10, 93–95, 1998

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. National Institute of Mental Health: Clinical global impressions. Psychopharmacological Bulletin 22:839–843, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  97. Antonacci DJ, DeGroot CM: Clozapine treatment in a population of adults with mental retardation. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 61(1), 22–25, 2000

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Thalayasingam S, Alexander RT, Singh I: The use of clozapine in adults with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 48(6), 572–579, 2004. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2004.00626.x

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Williams H, Clarke R, Bouras N, et al.: Use of the atypical antipsychotics olanzapine and risperidone in adults with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 44 (2), 164–169, 2000. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2788.2000.00284.x

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Yudofsky SC, Gabbard GO: Mood Disorders. In: Hales RE, Yudofsky SC, Gabbard GO (Eds) The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychiatry, 5th edn. APPI, USA

  101. Hurley AD: Individual psychotherapy with mentally retarded individuals: a review and call for research. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 10:261–265, 1989. doi:10.1016/0891-4222(89)90015-2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Benson BA: Psychological interventions for people with intellectual disability and mental health problems. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 17(5), 353–357, 2004. doi:10.1097/01.yco.0000139969.14695.dc

    Google Scholar 

  103. Prout HT, Nowak-Drabik KM: Psychotherapy with persons who have mental retardation: an evaluation of effectiveness. American Journal of Mental Retardation 108:82–93, 2003. doi:10.1352/0895-8017(2003)108<0082:PWPWHM>2.0.CO;2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Beail N: What works for people with mental retardation? Critical commentary on cognitive-behavioral and psychodynamic psychotherapy research. Mental Retardation 41(6), 468–472, 2003. doi:10.1352/0047-6765(2003)41<468:WWFPWM>2.0.CO;2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Beail N: Evidence base for behavioral interventions: critical commentary. Mental Retardation 43(6), 442–445, 2005. doi:10.1352/0047-6765(2005)43[442:RTSOPE]2.0.CO;2

    Google Scholar 

  106. Sturmey P: Against psychotherapy with people who have mental retardation. Mental Retardation 43(1), 55–57, 2005. doi:10.1352/0047-6765(2005)43<55:APWPWH>2.0.CO;2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Sturmey P: Against psychotherapy with people who have mental retardation: in response to the responses. Mental Retardation 44(1), 71–74, 2006. doi:10.1352/0047-6765(2006)44[71:APWPWH]2.0.CO;2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Hurley AD: Psychotherapy is an essential tool in the treatment of psychiatric disorders for people with mental retardation. Mental Retardation 43(6), 445–448, 2005. doi:10.1352/0047-6765(2005)43[445:PIAETI]2.0.CO;2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Taylor JL: In support of psychotherapy for people who have mental retardation. Mental Retardation 43(6), 450–453, 2005. doi:10.1352/0047-6765(2005)43[450:ISOPFP]2.0.CO;2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. King R: Proceeding with compassion while awaiting the evidence: psychotherapy and individuals with mental retardation. Mental Retardation 43(6), 448–450, 2005. doi:10.1352/0047-6765(2005)43[448:PWCWAT]2.0.CO;2

  111. Nezu CM, Nezu AM, Rothenberg J, et al.: Depression in adults with mild mental retardation: are cognitive variables involved? Cognitive Therapy and Research 36, 227–239, 1995. doi:10.1007/BF02229696

    Google Scholar 

  112. Dagnan D: Psychosocial interventions for people with intellectual disabilities and mental ill-health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 20, 446–460, 2007. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e3282ab9963

    Google Scholar 

  113. Jahoda A, Dagnan D, Jarvie P, et al.: Depression, social context and cognitive behavior therapy for people who have intellectual disabilities. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 19:81–89, 2006. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3148.2005.00286.x

    Google Scholar 

  114. McCabe MP, McGillivray JA, Newton DC: Effectiveness of treatment programmes for depression among adults with mild/moderate intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 50(4), 239–247, 2006. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00772.x

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Beck A: Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). The Psychological Corporation. San Antonio, Harcourt Brace, 1996

  116. Dosen A: Integrative treatment in persons with intellectual disability and mental health problems. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 51(1), 66–74, 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00868.x

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Dosen A: Applying the developmental perspective in the psychiatric assessment and diagnosis of persons with intellectual disability: part I––assessment. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities Research 49, 1–8, 2005. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00656.x

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Dosen A: Applying the developmental perspective in the psychiatric assessment and diagnosis of persons with intellectual disability: part II––diagnosis. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities Research 49, 9–15, 2005. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00657.x

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Esbensen AJ, Benson BA: An evaluation of Beck’s cognitive theory of depression in adults with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 51(1), 14–24, 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00860.x

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Beckham EE, Leber WR, Watkins JT, et al.: Development of an instrument to measure Beck’s cognitive triad: the cognitive triad inventory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 54, 566–567, 1986. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.54.4.566

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Kaslow NJ, Stark KD, Printz B, et al.: Cognitive triad inventory for children: development and relation to depression and anxiety. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 21, 339–347, 1992. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2104_3

    Google Scholar 

  122. Reynolds WM, Baker JA: Assessment of depression in persons with mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation 93, 93-103, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Piers EV, Harris DB: A manual for the Piers-Harris self-concept scale. Counselor Recordings and Tests, Nashville, TN, 1969

    Google Scholar 

  124. Kazdin AD, Rogers A, Colbus D: The hopelessness scale for children: psychometric characteristics and concurrent validity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 54, 241–245, 1986. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.54.2.241

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatric Medicine, The Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, 905 John’s Hopkin’s Drive, Greenville, NC, 27834, USA

    Diana J. Antonacci & Nadir Attiah

Authors
  1. Diana J. Antonacci
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nadir Attiah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Diana J. Antonacci.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Antonacci, D.J., Attiah, N. Diagnosis and Treatment of Mood Disorders in Adults with Developmental Disabilities. Psychiatr Q 79, 171–192 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-008-9079-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-008-9079-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation