Abstract
Catastrophic damages reported during an earthquake include building damages, excessive ground shaking, uneven settlements and liquefaction. While most of the seismic hazard studies map the probable level of ground shaking at the bedrock level, their use in assessing the above damages is very limited until the response of the local soil is also taken into account. Determination of the local soil response needs regionally recorded ground motions, dynamic soil properties, in situ geotechnical details, etc., which most of the time are not readily available for the region under study. In the present work, the response of local soil for Nepal has been studied indirectly taking into account the surface level of ground shaking during various past as well as recent EQs observed at various locations. Based on the present analysis, a low value of amplification factor for high peak horizontal acceleration and vice versa is observed in central, western as well as southern parts of Nepal. These observations suggest nonlinear soil behavior and are in accordance with the available literature. Further, the ground motion records during 2015 Nepal EQ show maximum soil response at 0.3 s which is exactly matching with the site class C obtained from in situ data for the above locations. Based on the above observations, various correlations between the high peak horizontal acceleration and the surface spectral acceleration are proposed to obtained site specific surface response spectrum for Nepal.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
ASC-Great Earthquakes. http://asc-india.org/menu/gquakes.htm. Accessed 22 Jan 2016
AGU (American Geophysics Union). http://blogs.agu.org/landslideblog/2015/04/29/langtang-1/. Accessed 16 May 2015
Anbazhagan P, Sitharam TG (2008) Site characterization and site response studies using shear wave velocity. J Seismol Earthq Eng 10(2):53–67
Anbazhagan P, Kumar A, Sitharam TG (2010) Site response of Deep soil sites in Indo-Gangetic plain for different historic earthquakes. In: Proceedings of 5th international conference on recent advances in geotechnical earthquake engineering and soil dynamics, San Diego, California 3.21d: 12
Anbazhagan P, Kumar A, Sitharam TG (2011) Amplification factor from intensity map and site response analysis for the soil sites during 1999 Chamoli earthquake. In: Proceedings of the 3rd Indian young geotechnical engineers conference, New Delhi, pp 311–316
Anbazhagan P, Kumar A, Sitharam TG (2013) Ground motion predictive equation based on recorded and simulated ground motion database. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 53:92–108
Ashford SA, Warrasak J, Panitan L (2000) Amplification of earthquake ground motions in Bangkok. In: Proceedings of 12th world conference on earthquake engineering, Paper No. 1466
BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/live/world-asia-32461412. Accessed 15 May 2015
Bhatia SC, Ravi MK, Gupta HK (1999) A probabilistic seismic hazard map of India and adjoining regions. Ann Geophys 42:1153–1164
Bilham R (1995) Location and magnitude of 1833 Nepal earthquake and its relation to the rupture zones of contiguous great Himalayan earthquakes. Curr Sci 69(2):101–128
Bilham R (2015) M w = 7.8 Earthquake Central Nepal (25 April 2015). http://cires1.colorado.edu/~bilham/2015%20Nepal/Nepal_2015_earthquake.html. Accessed 27 June 2015
Boominathan A, Dodagoudar GR, Suganthi A, Maheshwari RU (2008) Seismic hazard assessment of Chennai city considering local site effects. J Earth Syst Sci 117(S2):853–863
BSSC (2003) NEHRP recommended provision for seismic regulation for new buildings and other structures (FEMA 450), Part 1: Provisions, Building Safety seismic council for the federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, DC, USA
Cattermole P, Moore P (1986) The story of Earth. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Cornell CA (1968) Engineering seismic risk analysis. Bull Seismol Soc Am 58(5):1583–1606
Desai SS, Choudhury D (2014) Spatial variation of probabilistic seismic hazard of Mumbai and surrounding region. Nat Hazards 17(1):1873–1898
Desai SS, Choudhury D (2015) Site specific seismic ground response study for Nuclear power plants and ports in Mumbai. Nat Hazards Rev16(4)
DPNet, Nepal, Disaster Preparedness Network, Nepal. http://www.dpnet.org.np/index.php?pageName=earthquake. Accessed 27 June 2015
EPRI (1993) Guidelines for determining design basis ground motion. Palo Alto, CA, Electric Power Research Institute, 1, EPRI TR-102293
Finn WDL (1994) Effect of foundation soil on seismic damage potential. In: Proceedings of 10th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 6493–6506
Fuchs G (1974) On the geology of the Karnali and Dolpo regions, west Nepal. Mitteilungen Geologische Gesellschaft Wien 66–67:21–32
Hershberger J (1956) A comparison of earthquake acceleration with intensity ratings. Bull Seismol Soc Am 46:317–320
Housner GW (1990) Competing against time, Report to Governor George Deukmejian from the Governor’s Board of Inquiry on the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, 264
Iyenger RN, Ghosh S (2004) Microzonation of earthquake hazard in Greater Delhi area. Curr Sci 87(9):1193–1202
Jain SK, Murthy CVR, Jaswant NA, Rajendran CP, Rajendran K, Sinha R (1999) Chamoli (Himalaya, India) Earthquake of 29 March 1999. EERI Special Report 33(7)
Joyner WB, Boore DM (1981) Peak horizontal acceleration and velocity from strong motion records including records from the 1979 Imperial Valley California earthquake. Bull Seismol Soc Am 71:2011–2038
Kayal JR (1989) Subduction structure at the India/Burma plate boundary: Seismic and gravity evidenced. In: Proceedings of 28th International Geological Congress, USA, Abs. 2, 164–165
Khattri KN (1987) Great earthquakes, seismicity gaps and potential for earthquakes along the Himalayan plate boundary. Tectonophysics 108:93–134
Khattri KN (1999) Probabilities of occurrence of great earthquakes in the Himalaya, earth planetary sciences. Proc Indian Acad Sci 108(2):87–92
Kumar A, Anbazhagan P, Sitharam TG (2012) Site specific ground response study of deep Indo-Gangetic Basin using representative regional ground motions. In: Proceedings of Geo-Congress, State of art and practice in Geotechnical Engineering, Oakland California, Paper No. 1065
Kumar A, Anbazhagan P, Sitharam TG (2013) Seismic hazard analysis of Lucknow considering seismic gaps. Nat Hazards 69:327–350
Kumar A, Harinarayan NH, Baro O (2015) High amplification factor for low amplitude ground motion: assessment for Delhi. Disaster Adv 8(12):1–11
Kumar A, Baro O, Harinarayan NH (2016) Obtaining the surface PGA from site response analyses based on globally recorded ground motions and matching with the codal values. Nat Hazards 81:543–572. doi:10.1007/s11069-015-2095-x
Lavé J, Yule D, Sapkota S, Basant K, Madden C, Attal M, Pandey R (2005) Evidence for a great medieval earthquake (approximate to 1100 AD) in the Central Himalayas, Nepal. Science 307:1302–1305
Mahajan AK, Virdi KS (2001) Macroseismic field generated by 29 March, 1999 Chamoli earthquake and its seismotectonics. J Asian Earth Sci 19(4):507–516
Mondol J, Kumar A (2015) Impact of frequency content of input motion upon local site effect. In: Proceedings of 50th Indian Geotechnical Conference, 17–16 December 2015, COEP Pune, India, Paper No. 372
Montana Public Radio. http://mtpr.org/post/he-carried-his-mom-his-back-5-hours-en-route-medical-care. Accessed 15 May 2015
Moribayashi S, Maruo Y (1980) Basement topography of the Kathmandu Valley Nepal—An application of the gravitational method to the survey of a tectonic basin in the Himalaya. J Jpn Soc Eng Geol 21:30–37
Mugnier J, Huyghe P, Gajurel AP, Upreti BN, Jouanne F (2011) Seismites in the Kathmandu basin and seismic hazard in Central Himalaya. Tectonophysics 509:33–49
Mugnier L, Gajurel A, Huyghe P, Jayangondaperumal R, Jouanne F, Upreti B (2013) Structural interpretation of the great earthquakes of the last millennium in the Central Himalaya. Earth Sci Rev 127:30–47
Mukhopadhyay M, Dasgupta S (1988) Deep structure and tectonics of the Burmese arc: contraints from earthquake and gravity data. Tectonophysics 149:299–322
Murphy JR, O’Brien LJ (1977) The correlation of Peak ground acceleration amplitude with seismic intensity and other physical parameters. Bull Seismol Soc Am 67:877–915
Nakata T (1972) Geomorphic history and crustal movements of the foothills of the Himalayas. Sci Rep 22, Tohuko University, Geography Department, 1-177
Narayanpethkar AB, Vasanthi A, Mallick K (2007) Demarcation of liquefaction zones by Bouger gravity and electrical resistivity method. IGU J 11(4):175–180
NDMA (2010) Development of probabilistic seismic hazard map of India. Technical report by National Disaster Management Authority, Government of India
NDMA (2011) Geotechnical/Geophysical investigation for Seismic microzonation studies of urban centres in India. Technical report by National Disaster Management Authority, Government of India
Nepal Times. http://nepalitimes.com/article/nation/langtang-destroyed-in-earthquake,2205. Accessed 16 May 2015
Neupane R, Shrestha SD (2009) Hydrogeologic assessment and groundwater reserve evaluation in northwestern parts of Dun valley aquifers of Chitwan, inner Terai. Bulletin Dep Geol 12:43–54
Nihon (2011) Liquefaction induced damages caused by the M 9.0 East Japan mega earthquake on March 11, 2011, Tokyo Metropolitan University, HisatakaTano. Nihon University, Koriyama Japan, with cooperation of save Earth co. and Waseda University
Pandey MR (2000) Ground response of Kathmandu valley on the basis of microtremors. In: Proceedings of 12th world conference on earthquake engineering, Paper No.2106
Pant MR (2002) A step towards a historical seismicity of Nepal. Adarsa 2:29–60
Paudyal YR, Yatabe R, Bhandary NP, Dahal RK (2012) A study of local amplification effect of soil layers on ground motion in the Kathmandu valley using microtremor analysis. Earthq Eng Eng Vib 11:257–268
Phanikanth VS, Choudhury D, Reddy GR (2011) Equivalent linear seismic ground response analysis of some typical sites in Mumbai. Geotech Geol Eng 29(6):1109–1126
Philip WS, Aki K (1986) Site amplification of coda waves from local earthquakes in Central California. Bull SeismolSoc Am 79:627–648
Pitilakis K (2004) Site effects, Recent Advances in earthquake geotechnical engineering and microzonation. Geotech Geol Earthq 1:139–197
Raghukanth STG, Kumari KL, Kavitha B (2011) Estimation of ground motions during the 18th September 2011 Sikkim earthquake. Geomat Nat Hazards Risk 3(1):9–34
Rajendran K, Rajendran CP (2011) Revisiting the earthquake sources in the Himalayas: perspective of past seismicity. Tectonophysics 504(1–4):75–88
Rajendran K, Rajendran CP, Thakur M, Tuttle MP (2001) The 2001 Kutch (Bhuj) earthquake: coseismic surface features and their significance. Curr Sci 80(11):1397–1405
Romero SM, Rix GJ (2005) Ground motion amplification of soils in the upper Mississippi embayment. Report No. GIT-CEE/GEO-01-1, National Science Foundation Mid America Earthquake Center
Rowley DB (1996) Age of initiation of collision between India and Asia: a review of the stratigraphic data. Earth Planet Sci Lett 145:1–13
Sanjay KP, Ashok K, Sumer C, Bansal BK (2013) Intensity mapping of M w 6.9 2011 Sikkim–Nepal border earthquake and its relationship with PGA: distance and magnitude. Nat Hazards 69:1781–1801
Semblat JF, Duval AM, Dangla P (2000) Numerical analysis of seismic wave amplification in Nice (France) and comparison with experiments. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 19:347–362
Shrestha S (2014) Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis of Kathmandu city, Nepal. Int Eng Res Gen Sci 2(1):24–33
Sitharam TG, Anbazhagan P (2007) Seismic hazard analysis for Bangalore region. Nat Hazards 40:261–278
Slob S, Hack R, Scarpas T, Bemmelen V, Duque A (2002) A methodology of seismic microzonation GIS and SHAKE-A case study from Armenia, Colombia. In: Proceedings of the 9th congress of the International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment, Durban, South Africa, September 16–20
Stewart JP, Andrew HL, Yoojoong C (2003) Amplification factors for spectral acceleration in tectonically active regions. Bull Seismol Soc Am 93(1):332–352
Subeg Man Bijukchhen (2015) Strong ground-motion characteristics in the Kathmandu Basin (Strong-motion observation and damage assessment of 2015 Gorkha, Nepal Earthquake), ME Thesis, Division of architectural and structural design, Hokkaido University, Japan
The Himalayan Database. www.himalayandatabase.com. Accessed 27 June 2015
The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/04/25/dharahara-tower-nepal-earthquake_n_7142484.html. Assessed 12 Dec 2016
The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/world/everest-avalanche-2015/. Accessed 15 May 2015
Topal T, Doyuran V, Karahanoglu N, Toprak V, Suzen ML, Yesilnacar E (2003) Microzonation for earthquake hazards: Yenisehir settlement, Bursa, Turkey. Eng Geol 70(1):93–108
Trifunac MD, Brady AG (1975) On the correlation of seismic intensity scales with peaks of recorded strong ground motion. Bull Seismol Soc Am 65:139–162
UmutDesteguel (2004) Sensitivity analysis of soil site response modelling in seismic microzonation for Lalitpur, Nepal, M.Sc. Thesis, International Institute of Geo-information Science and Earth Observation, Enschede, Netherlands
USGS. Earthquakes with 1000 or more deaths 1900–2014. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/world_deaths.php. Accessed 16 Jan 2016
USGS, M w-7.8, 2015 Nepal earthquake. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us20002926#general_summary. Accessed 20 Jan 2016
Valdiya KS (1976) Himalayan transverse faults and folds and their parallelism with subsurface structures of North India plains. Tectonophysics 32:235–286
Wald DJ, Quintoriano V, Heaton TH, Kanamori H (1999) Relationship between peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity and modified Mercalli intensity in California. Earthq Spectra 15:557–564
Walter DM, Vijaya VR, Reddy PR, Gary SC, Shane TD (2005) Comparison of the deep crustal structure and seismicity of North America with the Indian subcontinent. Curr Sci 88(10):1639–1651
Wills CJ, Silva W (1998) Shear wave velocity characteristics of Geological units in California. Earthq Spectra 14(3):533–566
UNDP (United Nation Development Program), Multi hazard resistant new construction or reconstruction of BPL houses in flood prone alluvial areas, Bihar in Particular and India in general, Government of India
Yin A, Harrison TM (2000) Geologic evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogeny. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 28:211–280
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
The authors with their full knowledge ensure here that this work has not been submitted to any other journal in any form. Also the work presented here is original to this manuscript. Proper referencing has been done for all the necessary works published previously. In case the work is found matching or similar to other works, the Journal authorities have full right to reject the work and take needful action.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kumar, A., Harinarayan, N.H. & Baro, O. Nonlinear soil response to ground motions during different earthquakes in Nepal, to arrive at surface response spectra. Nat Hazards 87, 13–33 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-017-2751-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-017-2751-4