Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

In the aftermath of the October 2015 Alexandria Flood Challenges of an Arab city to deal with extreme rainfall storms

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Natural Hazards Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The October 2015 storm in Alexandria led to flooding of historical proportions. Although this October storm was a rare event (≈1:50 year), it could have been predicted at least 1 week in advance. If an appropriate warning system had been in place, measures could have been taken to alleviate its consequences. Therefore, the use of rainfall forecasting in storm water modelling can be one of the first useful and cheap mitigation measures. This forecasting system may further allow employing Anticipatory Water Management. The latter would imply that a large extra retention reservoir would be made available by pumping the water out from lakes of the city (Lake Maryot and Airport Lake) before it rains. Further research will be required to assess the technical and economic aspects of this option. The high variability and uncertainty of rainfall call for a robust and flexible strategy for Alexandria, which considers a portfolio of measures able to absorb the negative consequences of extreme events (designed for exceedance). This strategy should enable the responsible authorities to map out the future of the drainage system across the city over the next two or three decades and to identify the tipping point when upgrading of the existing drainage and irrigation system will be required. It will also provide the required evidence base on which a long-term wastewater and sewerage plan for Alexandria City should be implemented.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

(Source: Alexandria Sanitary and Drainage Company)

Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Arias-Hidalgo M, Bhattacharya B, Mynett AE, van Griensven A (2013) Experiences in using the TMPA-3B42R satellite data to complement rain gauge measurements in the Ecuadorian coastal foothills. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 17(7):2905–2915. doi:10.5194/hess-17-2905-2013

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ASDC (2015) Communication during technical meeting on December 18 & 19, 2015 and February 22 & 23, 2016 with Alexandria Sanitary Drainage Company led by M. M. Nafie, Chairman and CEO, ASDC

  • Ashley R, Lundy L, Ward S, Shaffer P, Walker A, Morgan C, Saul A, Wong T, Moore S (2013) Water-sensitive urban design: opportunities for the UK. In: Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Municipal Engineer. ICE Publishing, pp 65–76

  • Brown R, Keath N, Wong T (2009) Urban water management in cities: historical, current and future regimes. Water Sci Technol 59(5):847–855. doi:10.2166/wst.2009.029

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CAPMAS (2016) Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics. http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Templates/Articles/tmpArticles.asp/V4VIf5N97-Y

  • de Roo APJ, Gouweleeuw B, Thielen J, Bartholmes J, Bongioannini-Cerlini P, Todini E, Bates PD, Horritt M, Hunter N, Beven K, Pappenberger F, Heise E, Rivin G, Hils M, Hollingsworth A, Holst B, Kwadijk J, Reggiani P, van Dijk M, Sattler K, Sprokkereef E (2003) Development of a European flood forecasting system. Int J River Basin Manag 1(1):49–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Digman C, Balmforth D, Kellagher R, Butler D (2006) Designing for exceedance in urban drainage—good practice (C635), pp. 257, CIRIA. ISBN 978-0-86017-635-0

  • Egyptian Streets (2015) Alexandria ‘drowned’ by floods, leaving seven dead, 25 October, 2015. http://egyptianstreets.com/2015/10/25/alexandria-drowned-by-floods-leaving-seven-dead/

  • Fletcher TD, Shuster W, Hunt WF, Ashley R, Butler D, Arthur S, Trowsdale S, Barraud S, Semadeni-Davies A, Bertrand-Krajewski J-L (2014) SUDS, LID, BMPs, WSUD and more: the evolution and application of terminology surrounding urban drainage. Urban Water J 12(7):3–20. doi:10.1080/1573062X.2014.916314

    Google Scholar 

  • Fratini CF, Geldof GD, Kluck J, Mikkelsen PS (2012) Three Points Approach (3PA) for urban flood risk management: a tool to support climate change adaptation through transdisciplinarity and multifunctionality. Urban Water J 9:317–331

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gersonius B, Nasruddin F, Ashley R, Jeuken A, Pathirana A, Zevenbergen C (2012) Developing the evidence base for mainstreaming adaptation of stormwater systems to climate change. Water Res 46:6824–6835

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hallegatte S, Green C, Nicholls RJ, Corfee-Morlot J (2013) Future flood losses in major coastal cities. Nat Clim Change 3:802–806. doi:10.1038/nclimate1979

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hankerson BA, Kjaersgaard JB, Hay CA (2012) Estimation of evapotranspiration from fields with and without cover crops using remote sensing and in situ methods. Remote Sens 4(12):3796–3812

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HCWW—Holding Company for Water & Wastewater (2015) Personal communication during interviews with HCWW staff held in Cairo and Alexandria in December 2015

  • Hopson TM, Webster PJ (2010) A 1–10-day ensemble forecasting scheme for the major river basins of Bangladesh: forecasting severe floods of 2003–07. J Hydrometeorol 11:618–641

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HSE (Health and Safety Executive) (2002) Principles and guidelines to assist HSE in its judgments that duty-holders have risk as low as reasonable practicable. http://www.hse.gov.uk/dst/alarp1.htm

  • Huffman GJ, Adler RF, Bolvin DT, Gu G, Nelkin EJ, Bowman KP, Hong Y, Stocker EF, Wolff DB (2007) The TRMM multisatellite precipitation analysis (TMPA): quasiglobal, multiyear, combined-sensor precipitation estimates at fine scales. Hydrometeorology 8:38–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes DA (2006) Comparison of satellite rainfall data with observations from gauging station networks. Hydrology 327:399–410. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.11.041

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kok CJ, Wichers Schreur BGJ, Vogelezang DHP (2011) Meteorological support for anticipatory water management. Atmos Res 100(2–3):285–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liao K (2012) A theory on urban resilience to floods—a basis for alternative planning practices. Ecology and Society 17(4):48. doi:10.5751/ES-05231-17044. Retrieved from http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/8705/ES-2012-5231.pdf?seq

  • Salinas Rodriguez CNA, Ashley R, Gersonius B, Rijke J, Pathirana A, Zevenbergen C (2014) Incorporation and application of resilience in the context of water-sensitive urban design: linking European and Australian perspectives. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Water 1:173–186

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samuels P, Morris M, Sayers P, Creutin J, Kortenhaus A, Klijn K (2010) Framework for integrated flood risk management. In: Proceedings of the International Association of Hydraulic Research, IAHR, Venice, 2010

  • Sayers PB, Galloway GE, Hall JW (2012) Robust decision making under uncertainty: towards adaptive and resilient flood risk management infrastructure. In: Sayers PB (ed) Flood risk: planning, design and management of flood defence infrastructure. Thomas Telford, London

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sušnik J, Vamvakeridou-Lyroudia LS, Baumert N, Kloos J, Renaud FG, La Jeunesse I, Mabrouk B, Savić DA, Kapelan Z, Ludwig R, Fischer G, Roson R, Zografos C (2015) Interdisciplinary assessment of sea-level rise and climate change impacts on the lower Nile delta, Egypt. Sci Total Environ. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.111

    Google Scholar 

  • Tesfagiorgis K, Mahani S, Krakauer N, Khanbilvardi R (2011) Bias correction of satellite rainfall estimates using a radar-gauge product: a case study in Oklahoma (USA). Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 15:2631–2647

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNDP (2014) Arab Cities Disaster Resilience Program 2014-2017. www.undp.org/view_file54089

  • van de Ven FHM, Gersonius B, de Graaf R, Luijendijk E, Zevenbergen C (2011) Creating water robust urban environments in the Netherlands: linking spatial planning, design and asset management using a three-step approach. J Flood Risk Manag 4:273–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veerbeek W, Ashley R, Zevenbergen C, Gersonius B, Rijke J (2010) Building adaptive capacity for flood proofing in urban areas through synergistic interventions. In: Proceedings of first international conference on sustainable urbanization (ICSU 2010), Hong Kong, China

  • Zevenbergen C, Veerbeek W, Gersonius B, Van Herk S (2008) Challenges in urban flood management: travelling across spatial and temporal scales. J Flood Risk Manag 1(2):81–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zevenbergen C, Cashman A, Evelpidou N, Pasche E, Garvin S, Ashley R (2012) Urban flood management. CRC Press, Boca Raton. ISBN 9780415559447

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. UNESCO-IHE, Delft, The Netherlands

    C. Zevenbergen, B. Bhattacharya, T. Busker & C. N. A. Salinas Rodriguez

  2. Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

    C. Zevenbergen

  3. Holding Company for Water and Wastewater, Cairo, Egypt

    R. A. Wahaab

  4. Faculty of Engineering, University of Alexandria, Alexandria, Egypt

    W. A. I. Elbarki

  5. University Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    T. Busker

Authors
  1. C. Zevenbergen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. B. Bhattacharya
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. R. A. Wahaab
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. W. A. I. Elbarki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. T. Busker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. C. N. A. Salinas Rodriguez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to C. Zevenbergen.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zevenbergen, C., Bhattacharya, B., Wahaab, R.A. et al. In the aftermath of the October 2015 Alexandria Flood Challenges of an Arab city to deal with extreme rainfall storms. Nat Hazards 86, 901–917 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2724-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2724-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation