Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Food Security During Infancy: Implications for Attachment and Mental Proficiency in Toddlerhood

  • Published:
Maternal and Child Health Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Objective This study examined the associations between household food security (access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food) during infancy and attachment and mental proficiency in toddlerhood. Methods Data from a longitudinal nationally representative sample of infants and toddlers (n = 8944) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—9-month (2001–2002) and 24-month (2003–2004) surveys were used. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the direct and indirect associations between food insecurity at 9 months, and attachment and mental proficiency at 24 months. Results Food insecurity worked indirectly through depression and parenting practices to influence security of attachment and mental proficiency in toddlerhood. Conclusions Social policies that address the adequacy and predictability of food supplies in families with infants have the potential to affect parental depression and parenting behavior, and thereby attachment and cognitive development at very early ages.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Bickel, G., Nord, M., Price, C., Hamilton, W., & Cook, J. (2000). Guide to measuring household food security. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Alaimo, K. (2005). Food insecurity in the United States: An overview. Topics in Clinical Nutrition, 20(4), 281–298.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Alaimo, K., Olson, C. M., & Frongillo, E. A. (2001). Food insufficiency and American school-aged children’s cognitive, academic, and psychosocial development. Pediatrics, 108(1), 44–53.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Slack, K. S., & Yoo, J. (2004). Food hardships and child behavior problems among low-income children. Insitute for Research on Poverty.

  5. Kleinman, R. E., Murphy, J. M., Little, M., Pagano, M., Wehler, C. A., Regal, K., et al. (1998). Hunger in children in the United States: Potential behavioral and emotional correlates. Pediatrics, 101(1), 1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Whitaker, R. C., Phillips, S. M., & Orzol, S. M. (2006). Food insecurity and the risks of depression and anxiety in mothers and behavior problems in their preschool-aged children. Pediatrics, 118(3), 859–868.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Reid, L. L. (2001). The consequences of food insecurity for child well-being: An analysis of children’s school achievement, psychological well-being, and health. Panama City, FL: Florida State University.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Wu, Z., & Schimmele, C. M. (2005). Food insufficiency and depression. Sociological Perspectives, 48(4), 481–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O’Hare E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(5), 561–592.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Gamez-Galka, C. A. (2000). Maternal depression: The influence of negativity on parental attitudes, self-efficacy, and parental behaviors. Houston, TX: University of Houston.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Hoffman, C. (2006). Maternal depression and parenting across the preschool period: Implications for regulatory competence and psychological functioning. State College, PA: Pennsylvania State University.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Downey, G., & Coyne, J. C. (1990). Children of depressed parents: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 108(1), 50–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Whiffen, V. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1989). Infants of postpartum depressed mothers: Temperament and cognitive status. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98(3), 274–279.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Kurstjens, S., & Wolke, D. (2001). Effects of maternal depression on cognitive development of children over the first 7 years of life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(5), 623–636.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Murray, L., Fiori-Cowley, A., Hooper, R., & Cooper, P. (1996). The impact of postnatal depression and associated adversity on early mother–infant interactions and later infant outcome. Child Development, 67, 2512–2526.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Murray, L., & Cooper, P. J. (1996). The impact of postpartum depression on child development. International Review of Psychiatry, 8(1), 55–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Dawson, G., Ashman, S. B., Panagiotides, H., Hessl, D., Self, J., Yamada, E., et al. (2003). Preschool outcomes of children of depressed mothers: Role of maternal behavior, contextual risk, and children’s brain activity. Child Development, 74(4), 1158–1175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Rosenblum, L. A., & Paully, G. S. (1984). The effects of varying environmental demands on maternal and infant behavior. Child Development, 55, 305–314.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Bowlby, J. (1969/1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1, Attachment. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  20. De Wolff, M. S., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68(4), 571–591.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Zaslow, M. J., Hair, E. C., Dion, M. R., Ahluwalia, S. K., & Sargent, J. (2001). Maternal depressive symptoms and low literacy as potential barriers to employment in a sample of families receiving welfare: Are there two-generational implications? Welfare, work, and well-being. Women and Health, 32(3), 211–251.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Zaslow, M. J., Weinfield, N. S., & Gallagher, M. (2006). Longitudinal prediction of child outcomes from differing measures of parenting in a low-income sample. Developmental Psychology, 42(1), 27–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Hofferth, S. L. (2004). Persistence and change in the food security of families with children, 1997–1999. Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Laraia, B. A., Siega-Riz, A. M., Gundersen, C., & Dole, N. (2006). Psychosocial factors and socioeconomic indicators are associated with household food insecurity among pregnant women. Journal of Nutrition, 136, 177–182.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Cabrera, N., Shannon, J., West, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2006). Parental interactions with Latino infants: Variation by country of origin and English proficiency. Child Development, 74(5), 1190–1207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. McAnarney, E. R., Lawrence, R. A., Ricciuti, H. N., Polley, J., & Szilagyi, M. (1986). Interactions of adolescent mothers and their 1-year-old children. Pediatrics, 78(4), 585–590.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Broussard, E. R. (1995). Infant attachment in a sample of adolescent mothers. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 25(4), 211–219.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Williams, S. W., & Blunk, E. M. (2003). Sex differences in infant–mother attachment. Psychological Reports, 92(1), 84–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Pederson, D. R., Moran, G., Sitko, C., Campbell, K., Ghesquire, K., & Acton, H. (1990). Maternal sensitivity and the security of infant-mother attachment: A Q-sort study. Child Development, 61(6), 1974–1983.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Hofferth, S. L., & Reid, L. (2002). Early childbearing and children’s achievement and behavior over time. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 34(1), 41–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Scher, A., & Mayseless, O. (2000). Mothers of anxious/ambivalent infants: Maternal characteristics and child-care context. Child Development, 71(6), 1629–1639.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Braungart-Rieker, J., Courtney, S., & Garwood, M. M. (1999). Mother– and father–infant attachment: Families in context. Journal of Family Psychology, 13(4), 535–553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Benn, R. K. (1986). Factors promoting secure attachment relationships between employed mothers and their sons. Child Development, 57(5), 1224–1331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Waldfogel, J., Han W.-J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002). The effects of early maternal employment on child cognitive development. Demography, 39(2), 369–392.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Ruhm, C. J. (2004). Parental employment and child cognitive development. The Journal of Human Resources, 39(1), 155–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Garcia Coll, C. T. (1990). Developmental outcome of minority infants: A process oriented look into our beginnings. Child Development, 61, 270–289.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Blake, J. (1981). Family size and quality of children. Demography, 18, 621–662.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Blake, J. (1989). Number of siblings and educational attainment. Science, 245(4913), 32–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Dearing, E., Berry, Z., & Zaslow, M. (2006). Poverty during early childhood. In K. McCartney & D. Phillips (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood development (pp. 399–423). Oxford, England: Blackwell.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  40. Aronson, S. R., & Huston, A. C. (2004). The mother–infant relationship in single, cohabiting, and married families: A case for marriage? Journal of Family Psychology, 18(1), 5–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Brown, S. L. (2004). Family structure and child well-being: The significance of parental cohabitation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 351–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Shannon, J. D., Cabrera, N. J., & Lamb, M. E. (2004). Fathers and mothers at play with their 2- and 3-year-olds: Contributions to language and cognitive development. Child Development, 75(6), 1806–1820.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Furness, B. W., Simon, P. A., Wold, C. M., & Asarian-Anderson, J. (2004). Prevalence and predictors of food insecurity among low-income households in Los Angeles County. Public Health Nutrition, 7, 791–794.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Petterson, S. M., & Albers, A. B. (2001). Effects of poverty and maternal depression on early childhood development. Child Development, 72(6), 1794–1813.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2005). Duration and developmental timing of poverty and children’s cognitive and social development from birth through third grade. Child Development, 76(4), 795–810.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Herman, D. R., Harrison, G. G., Afifi, A. A., & Jenks, E. (2004). The effect of the WIC program on food security status of pregnant, first-time participants. Family Economics and Nutrition Review, 16(1), 21–30.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Hicks, L., Langham, R., & Takenaka, J. (1982). Cognitive and health measures following ealry nutritional supplementation: A sibling study. American Journal of Public Health, 72(10), 1110–1117.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. U.S. Department of Agriculture Food, Nutrition Service. (1987). The national WIC evaluation: An evaluation of the special supplemental food program for women, infants, and children. Vol. 1: Summary. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Center on Hunger and Poverty. (1998). Statement on the link between nutrition and cognitive development in children. Waltham, MA: Center on Hunger and Poverty.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Rauh, V. A., Whyatt, R. M., Garfinkel, R., Andrews, H., Hoepner, L., Reyes, A., et al. (2004). Developmental effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and material hardship among inner-city children. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 26(3), 373–385.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Yolton, K., Dietrich, K., Auinger, P., Lanphear, B. P., & Hornung, R. (2005). Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and cognitive abilities among U.S. children and adolescents. Environmental Health Perspectives, 113(1), 98–103.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Alaimo, K. (2000). Consequences of food insufficiency for American children. US: ProQuest Information & Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Schor, E. L. (2004). Rethinking well-child care. Pediatrics, 114(1), 210–216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Young, K. T., Davis, K., Schoen, C., & Parker, S. (1998). Listening to parents: A national survey of parents with young children. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 152, 255–262.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Regalado, M., & Halfon, N. (2001). Primary care services promoting optimal child development from birth to age 3 years: Review of the literature. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 155, 1311–1322.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Minkovitz, C. S., Strobino, D., Scharfstein, D., Hou, W., Miller, T., Mistry, K. B., et al. (2005). Maternal depressive symptoms and children’s receipt of health care in the first 3 years of life. Pediatrics, 115(2), 306–314.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Caldaza, E. J., & Eyberg, S. M. (2002). Self-reported parenting practices in Dominican and Puerto Rican mothers of young children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31(3), 354–363.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Valera, R. E., Vernberg, E. M., Sanchez-Sosa, J. J., Riveros, A., Mitchell, M., & Mashunkashey, J. (2004). Parenting style of Mexican, Mexican-American, and Caucasian-non-Hispanic families: Social context and cultural influences. Journal of Family Psychology, 18(4), 651–657.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Steinberg, L., Elmen, J. D., & Mounts, N. S. (1989). Authoritative parenting, psychosocial maturity, and academic success among adolescents. Child Development, 60(6), 1424–1436.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Nord, M., Andrews, M., & Carlson, S. (2007). Household food security in the United States, 2006. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Diener, M. L., Mangelsdorf, S. C., Brown, G. L., McHale, J. L., & Frosch, C. A. (2006). Attachment and sensitivity in family context: The roles of parent and infant gender. Infant and Child Development, 15, 367–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Berglund, E., Eriksson, M., & Westerlund, M. (2005). Communicative skills in relation to gender, birth order, childcare and socioeconomic status in 18-month-old children. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 46(6), 485–491.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Magnuson, K. A., & Waldfogel, J. (2005). Early childhood care and education: Effects on ethnic and racial gaps in school readiness. Future of Children (Special Issue on School Readiness: Closing Racial and Ethnic Gaps), 15, 169–196.

    Google Scholar 

  64. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2002). Early child care and children’s development prior to school entry: Results from the NICHD study of early child care. American Educational Research Journal, 39(1), 133–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Nord, C., Edwards, B., Hilpert, R., Branden, L., Andreassen, C., Elmore, A., et al. (2004). User’s manual for the ECLS-B nine-month restricted-use data file and electronic code book. Washington, DC: National Center For Educational Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Nord, C., Edwards, B., Andreassen, C., Green, J. L., Wallner-Allen, K., & Mulligan, G. (2006). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), user’s manual for the ECLS-B longitudinal 9-month–2-year data file and electronic codebook (NCES 2006–046). Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Arbuckle, J. L. (1994). AMOS: Analysis of moment structures. Psychometrika, 59, 135–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Raykov, T., & Marcoulides, G. A. (2006). A first course in structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Waters, E., & Deane, K. E. (1985). Defining and assessing individual differences in attachment relationships: Q-methodology and the organization of behavior in infancy and early childhood. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1), 41–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Andreassen, C., & Fletcher, P. (2007). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) psychometric report for the 2-year data collection: Methodology report. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Bayley, N. (1993). Bayley Scales of Infant Development, second edition manual. New York: Harcourt Brace & Company.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Andreassen, C., & Fletcher, P. (2005). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) methodology report for the nine-month data collection (2001–2002): Volume 1: Psychometric characteristics. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Sumner, G., & Spietz, A. L. (1995). NCAST caregiver/parent–child interaction teaching manual, (2nd ed.). Seattle, WA: NCAST Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Kisker, E. E., Boller, K., Nagatoshi, C., Sciarrino, C., Jethwani, V., Zavitsky, T., et al. (2003). Early Head Start: Resources for measuring services & outcomes in Head Start programs serving infants and toddlers: Administration for Children and Families, April 27, 2003.

  76. American Academy of Pediatrics. (2000). Recommendations for preventative pediatric health care. Pediatrics, 105(3), 645–646.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2006). Mplus user’s guide (4th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Bronte-Tinkew, J., Zaslow, M. J., Capps, R., Horowitz, A., Moore, K. A., & McNamara, M. (2007). Food insecurity is associated with obesity and poorer health for infants and toddlers. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Briggs-Gowan, M. J., & Carter, A. S. (2002). Brief-Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA): Manual (2nd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Carter, A. S., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J., (2001). Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA) manual, Version 1.1: Unpublished manual available from authors: ITSEA@yale.edu.

  82. Carter, A. S., & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2003). The Infant Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA): Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 495–514.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Bronte-Tinkew, J., Moore, K., Matthews, G., & Carrano, J. (2007). Symptoms of major depression in a sample of fathers of infants: Socio-demographic correlates and links to father involvement. Journal of Family Issues, 28(1), 61–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Child Trends, 4301 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC, 20008, USA

    Martha Zaslow, Jacinta Bronte-Tinkew, Allison Horowitz, Kristin A. Moore & Debra Weinstein

  2. The Urban Institute, 2101 M Street NW, Washington, DC, 20037, USA

    Randolph Capps

Authors
  1. Martha Zaslow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jacinta Bronte-Tinkew
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Randolph Capps
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Allison Horowitz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Kristin A. Moore
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Debra Weinstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Martha Zaslow.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zaslow, M., Bronte-Tinkew, J., Capps, R. et al. Food Security During Infancy: Implications for Attachment and Mental Proficiency in Toddlerhood. Matern Child Health J 13, 66–80 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-008-0329-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-008-0329-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation