Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Is Physical Alteration a Sufficient Reason to Prohibit Ritual Infant Circumcision?

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Religion and Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

European culture and thought have long disfavored ritual child circumcision, which is obligatory to Jews and Muslims. Much opposition to this practice hinges on the notion that it represents an unwarranted unconsented physical assault on the child. This article takes issue with that conclusion. Furthermore, even if one were to grant this conclusion, the offense is not of sufficient magnitude to warrant government action to halt the practice. On the other hand, suppression of ritual child circumcision may represent an attack against cultures and societies in which circumcision is practiced.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The differential treatment of girls and boys without abandoning circumcision of boys is an issue that non-traditional Jews are trying to address, however (Cohen 2005).

  2. Kant was mistaken in stating that traditional Judaism does not accept an afterlife.

  3. At any rate, the scope of these phenomena may be exaggerated. Earp (2016, 142) quotes, apparently as fact, the claims of a manufacturer of an epispasm device estimate that hundreds of thousands of men are attempting circumcision reversal via epispasm. My own conversations with urologists suggest that they do not see many patients seeking circumcision reversal, or men who have attempted this. The actual rarity of epispasm is suggested by the sparse peer-reviewed literature on the subject (Özer & Timmermans, 2020).

  4. In the USA, limitation of parental authority requires demonstration of actual or likely neglect or abuse, using the strict “clear and convincing” standard. Parents may, for example, arbitrarily deny children access to their grandparents (Troxel v. Granville, 530 US 57, 68–69 (2000)) and can commit their child to a mental hospital without a formal hearing (Parham v. J.R., 442 U.S. 584 (1979)).

  5. I believe that the pain of infant circumcision should be minimized through appropriate analgesia, as infants do not learn forbearance from being circumcised. But the pain inherent an expertly performed circumcision does not justify banning the procedure since, as I have noted, ritual infant circumcision conveys other advantages.

  6. Physical appearance makes it impossible for many members of disadvantaged minorities to blend into some larger communities. This would be true even in the event of complete cultural assimilation.

  7. Michael Chabon, Those People, Over There, Commencement address at Hebrew Union College, Los Angeles, California, May 14, 2018.

References

  • Abramitzky, R. (2011). Lessons from the kibbutz on the equality–incentives trade-off. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25(1), 185–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adler, A., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2016). Using wellbeing for public policy: Theory, measurement, and Recommendations. International Journal of Wellbeing, 6(1), 1–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alperin, R. M. (2016). Jewish self-hatred: The internalization of prejudice. Clinical Social Work Journal, 44(3), 221–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Sabbagh, M. L. (1996). Islamic ruling on male and female circumcision. World Health Organization. Retrieved March 28, 2020, from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/119559/dsa54.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

  • Audi, R. (2011). Democratic authority and the separation of church and state. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Aviezer, O., Sagi, A., & Van Ijzendoorn, M. (2001). Balancing the family and the collective in raising children: Why communal sleeping in kibbutzim was predestined to end. Family Process, 41(3), 435–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2013). Principles of biomedical ethics (7th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benatar, M., & Benatar, D. (2003). Between prophylaxis and child abuse: The ethics of neonatal male circumcision. American Journal of Bioethics, 3(2), 35–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berlin, I. (1958/1998). Two concepts of liberty. In H. Hardy & R. Hausheer (eds.). The proper study of mankind: An anthology of essays: Isaiah Berlin (pp 191–242). Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

  • Bossio, J. A., Pukall, C. F., & Bartle, Ky. (2015). You either have it or you don’t: The impact of male circumcision on sexual partners. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 24(2), 104–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyle, G. J., Svoboda, J. S., Price, C. P., & Turner, J. N. (2000). Circumcision of healthy boys: Criminal assault? Journal of Law and Medicine, 7(3), 301–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brennan, S., & Noggle, R. (1997). The moral status of children: Children’s rights, parents’ rights, and family justice. Social Theory and Practice, 23(1), 1–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brusa, M., & Barilan, Y. M. (2009). Cultural circumcision in EU public hospitals—An ethical discussion. Bioethics, 23, 470–482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brussels Collaboration on Bodily Integrity. (2019). Medically unnecessary genital cutting and the rights of the child: Moving toward consensus. American Journal of Bioethics, 19(10), 17–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan, A. E., & Brock, D. W. (1989). Deciding for others: The ethics of surrogate decision making. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M., & von Hippel, W. (2018). Psychological barriers to evolutionary psychology: Ideological bias and coalitional adaptations. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 6(1), 148–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cantor, N. F. (1994). The sacred chain: The history of the Jews. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S. J. D. (2005). Why aren’t Jewish women circumcised?. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crerand, C. E., & Magee, L. (2013). Cosmetic and reconstructive breast surgery in adolescents: psychological, ethical, and legal considerations. Seminars in Plastic Surgery, 27(1), 72-18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2020). Confucius. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.). The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2020 Edition). forthcoming https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/confucius/.

  • Dahlsgaard, K., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Shared virtue: The convergence of valued human strengths across culture. Review of General Psychology, 9(3), 203–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLaet, D. L. (2009). Framing male circumcision as a human rights issue? Contributions to the debate over the universality of human rights. Journal of Human Rights, 8(4), 405–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durand, Martine. (2015). The OECD better life initiative: How’s life? and the measurement of well-being. Review of Income and Wealth, 61(1), 4–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dworkin, G. (1999). Devlin was right: Law and the enforcement of morality. William & Mary Law Review, 40, 927–946.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dwyer, J. G. (2014). Who decides? In A. Bagattini & C. MacLeod (Eds.), The nature of children’s well-being: theory and practice (pp. 157–175). Berlin: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Earp, B. D. (2013). Critisising religious practices. The Philosophers’ Magazine, 63, 15–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Earp, B. D. (2016). Between moral relativism and moral hypocrisy: Reframing the debate on “FGM”. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 26(2), 105–144.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Earp, B.D. & Darby, R. (2017). Circumcision, sexual experience, and harm. University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law [Online Symposium, re: 37(2)]. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brian_Earp/publication/315763686_Circumcision_sexual_experience_and_harm/links/5911160baca272ec9a391cd3/Circumcision-sexual-experience-and-harm.pdf.

  • Ebels-Duggan, K. (2012). Kant’s political philosophy. Philosophy Compass, 7(12), 896–909.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edelstein, D. (2019). On the spirit of rights. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • El Bcheraoui, C., Zhang, X., Cooper, C. S., Rose, C. E., Kilmarx, P. H., & Chen, R. T. (2014). Rates of adverse events associated with male circumcision in US medical settings, 2001 to 2010. JAMA Pediatrics, 168(7), 625–634.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Etzioni, A. (1996). The new golden rule. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fineman, M. A. (2010). The vulnerable subject and the responsive state. Emory Law Journal, 60(251), 1–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fӧldes, M. E., & Covaci, A. (2012). Research on Roma health and access to healthcare: State of the art and future challenges. International Journal of Public Health, 57(1), 37–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, M., & Thomson, M. (2005). Short changed? The law and ethics of male circumcision. International Journal of Children’s Rights, 13(1/2), 161–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, M. D. A. (1999). A child’s right to circumcision. BJU International, 83(Suppl. 1), 74–78.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ganzfried, S. (1961). Code of Jewish law (H. E. Goldin, Trans.). Hebrew Publishing Company, v.4 p. 4.

  • Ghaeus, A. (2018). Children’s vulnerability and legitimate authority over children. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 35(S1), 60–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glendon, M. A. (1998). Knowing the universal declaration of human rights. Notre Dame Law Review, 73(5), 1153–1190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Godfrey, E. B., Santos, C. E., & Burson, E. (2019). For better or worse? System-justifying beliefs in sixth-grade predict trajectories of self-esteem and behavior across early adolescence. Child Development, 91(1), 180–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldman, R. (1999). The psychological impact of circumcision. BJU International, 83(Suppl. 1), 93–102.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, T., & Carmack, A. (2017). Long-term adverse outcomes from neonatal circumcision reported in a survey of 1008 men: An overview of health and human rights implications. International Journal of Human Rights, 21(2), 189–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, D. M. (2002). Rethinking circumcision and sexuality in the United States. Sexualities, 5(3), 300–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hazony, Y. (2018). The virtues of nationalism. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hebrew Bible. (2019). The Hebrew Bible: A translation with commentary. The five books of Moses (Alter, R. Norton, Trans.).

  • Henrich, Joseph. (2004). Cultural group selection, coevolutionary processes, and large-scale cooperation. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 53(1), 3–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henrich, J. (2016). The secret of our success. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Heschel, S. (2006). From Jesus to Shylock: Christian supersessionism and “The merchant of Venice”. Harvard Theological Review, 99(4), 407–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hockey Canada. (2020). Pathway to minor hockey. Retrieved March 28, 2020, from https://www.hockeycanada.ca/en-ca/hockey-programs/parents/pathway.

  • Horton, J. (2010). Realism, liberal moralism and a political theory of modus vivendi. European Journal of Political Theory, 9(4), 431–448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iltis, A. S. (2010). Toward a coherent account of pediatric decision making. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 35(5), 526–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, A. S. (2011). Passing: Jesus’ circumcision and strategic self-sacrifice. In J. F. Knust & Z. Várhelyi (Eds.), Ancient Mediterranean sacrifice (pp. 251–264). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, A. J., & Arora, K. S. (2015). Ritual male infant circumcision and human rights. American Journal of Bioethics, 15(2), 30–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, A. J., & Arora, K. S. (2017). Vulvar nick and metzitzah b’peh: Punishment or harm reduction? In L. Campo-Engelstein & P. Burcher (Eds.), Reproductive ethics: New challenges and conversations (pp. 151–170). Berlin: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, A. J., & Arora, K. S. (2018). When may government interfere with religious practices to protect the health and safety of children? Ethics in Medicine and Public Health, 5(1), 86–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • John Paul II, Pope. (1980). Meeting of John Paul II with the representatives of the [German] Jewish community, Mainz, 17 November 1980. (Trans. by Google Translate). https://w2.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/it/speeches/1980/november/documents/hf_jp_ii_spe_19801117_ebrei-magonza.html.

  • Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33(1), 1–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Junger, S. (2016). Tribe: Our homecoming and belonging. New York: Twelve.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahneman, D., & Deaton, A. (2010). High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(38), 16489–16493.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kant, I. (1785/2002). Groundwork to the metaphysics of morals (A. E Wood, Trans.). Yale University Press.

  • Kant, I. (1793/1960). Religion within the limits of reason alone (T. M. Greene & H. H. Hudson, Trans.). Harper Torchbooks.

  • Kant, I. (1795/1903). Perpetual peace: A philosophical essay (M. Campbell Smith, Trans.). George Allen & Unwin.

  • Kant, I. (1798/1992). The conflict of the faculty (M. J. Gregor, Trans.). University of Nebraska Press.

  • King James Bible. (2017). King James Bible Online. https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/ (Original work published 1769).

  • Klein, I. (1992). A guide to Jewish religious practice. New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krygier, M. (2015). Rule of law (and Rechtsstaat). In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (2nd ed., Vol. 20, pp. 780–787). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, P. Y. W., & Wong, R. W. K. (2006). Risks and complications in orthodontic treatment. Hong Kong Dental Journal, 3(1), 15–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laufer-Ukeles, P. (2016). The relational rights of children. Connecticut Law Review, 48, 741–806.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laumann, E. O., Paik, A., & Rosen, R. C. (1999). Sexual dysfunction in the United States: Prevalence and predictors. JAMA, 281(6), 537–544.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, D. P. (2015). Why is America obsessed with perfecting its teeth? New York Magazine. https://www.thecut.com/2015/06/why-is-america-obsessed-perfect-teeth.html.

  • Levin, H. Y., Jacobs, A. J., & Arora, K. S. (2016). To accommodate or not to accommodate: (When) should the state regulate religion to protect the rights of children and third parties? Washington & Lee Law Review, 73(2), 915–1017.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, K. (1941). Self-hatred among Jews. Contemporary Jewish Record, IV, 219–232. Republished in Lewin, Kurt. (1948). resolving social conflicts: Selected papers on group dynamics (pp. 186–200). Harper & Row.

  • Library of Congress. (2018). Legal Restrictions on Religious Slaughter in Europe. Retrieved March 28, 2020, from https://www.loc.gov/law/help/religious-slaughter/religious-slaughter-europe.pdf.

  • Maine v. Kargar, 679 A.2d 81 (Maine Supreme Court 1996).

  • Marx, K. (1843/1978). On the Jewish question. In: Tucker, R. (Ed.), The Marx-Engels reader (pp. 26–46). New York: Norton.

  • Mazor, J. (2013). The child’s interests and the case for the permissibility of male infant circumcision. Journal of Medical Ethics, 39(7), 421–428.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mazor, J. (2019). On the strength of children’s right to bodily integrity: The case of circumcision. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 36(1), 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, M. P., Sharlip, I. D., Lewis, R., Atalla, E., Balon, R., Fisher, A. D., et al. (2016). Incidence and prevalence of sexual dysfunction in women and men: A consensus statement from the fourth international consultation on sexual medicine 2015. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 13(2), 144–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minow, M. (1986). Rights for the next generation: A feminist approach to children’s rights. Harvard Women’s Law Journal, 9(1), 1–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, I. G., & Rose, K. A. (2019). Myopia: is the nature-nurture debate finally over? Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 102(1), 3–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, B. J., Hankins, C. A., Lumbers, E. R., Mindel, A., Klausner, J. D., Krieger, J. N., et al. (2019a). Sex and male circumcision: Women’s preferences across different cultures and countries: A systematic review. Sexual Medicine, 7(2), 145–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esxm.2019.03.003.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, B. J., Moreton, S., & Krieger, J. N. (2019b). Critical evaluation of arguments opposing male circumcision: A systematic review. Journal of Evidence-Based Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1111/jebm.12361.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, B. J., Wamai, R. G., Henebeng, B., Aaron, A., Tobian, R. R., Klausner, J. D., et al. (2016). Estimation of country-specific and global prevalence of male circumcision. Population Health Metrics, 14(1), 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munzer, S. R. (2018). Examining nontherapeutic circumcision. Health Matri, x, 28(1), 1–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mutua, M. (2007). Standard setting in human rights: Critique and progress. Human Rights Quarterly, 29(7), 547–629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niehoff, M. R. (2003). Circumcision as a marker of identity: Philo, Origen and the Rabbis on Gen 17:1–141. Jewish Studies Quarterly, 10, 89–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ochs, P. (2005). Judaism and Christian Y theology. In D. F. Ford & R. Muers (Eds.), The modern theologians: An introduction to Christian theology since 1918 (pp. 645–662). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Özer, M., & Timmermans, F. (2020). An insight into circumcised men seeking foreskin reconstruction: A prospective cohort study. International Journal of Impotence Research. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41443-019-0223-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parliamentary Assembly. (2013). Parliamentary Assembly. Council of Europe, Children’s right to physical integrity, Resolution 1952.

  • Parliamentary Assembly. (2015). Parliamentary Assembly. Council of Europe, Freedom of religion and living together in a democratic society, Resolution 2076.

  • Plato. (1968). Republic (Allan Bloom, Trans.). Basic Books, IV, 427e.

  • Pogge, T. W. (1992). Cosmopolitanism and sovereignty. Ethics, 103(1), 48–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pool, G. J., Wood, W., & Leck, K. (1998). The self-esteem motive in social influence: agreement with valued majorities and disagreement with derogated minorities. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(4), 967–975.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Provencal, V. L. (2001). The family in Aristotle. Animus, 6(1), 3–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Public Policy Advisory Network on Female Genital Surgeries in Africa. (2012). Seven things to know about female genital surgeries in Africa. Hastings Center Report, 2012(6), 19–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rawls, J. (2005). Political liberalism (Expanded ed.). Columbia: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Read, S., King, M., & Watson, J. (1997). Sexual dysfunction in primary medical care: prevalence, characteristics and detection by the general practitioner. Journal of Public Health Medicine, 19(4), 387–391.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rivera-Spoljaric, K. (2018). Ear Piercings for Babies | A Cultural Controversy. Children’s M.D.: Mom Doc, a Children’s Hospital of St. Louis sponsored blog. Posted Jul 31, 2018. https://childrensmd.org/browse-by-age-group/newborn-infants/ear-piercings-for-babies/.

  • Ross, W. D. (1930/2002). The right and the good (P. Stratton-Lake, Ed.). Oxford University Press.

  • Ross, L. F. (1998). Children, families, and health care decision-making. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roth, P. (1994). Portnoy’s complaint. New York: Vintage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandel, M. (1981). Liberalism and the limits of justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarajlic, E. (2014). Can culture justify infant circumcision? Res Publica, 20(3), 327–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulberg, B. (1941). What makes Sammy run?. New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sen, A. (2004). Elements of a theory of human rights. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 32, 315–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shabanzadeh, D. M., Düring, S., & Frimodt-Møller, C. (2016). Male circumcision does not result in inferior perceived male sexual function—A systematic review. Danish Medical Journal., 63(6), A5245.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, D. (2009). Cutting through red tape: Non-therapeutic circumcision and unethical guidelines. Clinical Ethics, 4(4), 181–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shklar, J. N. (1984). Ordinary vices. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shklar, J. N. (1989). The liberalism of fear. In N. L. Rosenblum (Ed.), Liberalism and the moral life (pp. 21–38). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shweder, R. A. (2009). Shouting at the Hebrews: Imperial liberalism v liberal pluralism and the practice of male circumcision. Law, Culture and the Humanities, 5, 247–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shweder, R. A. (2016). Equality now in genital reshaping: Brian Earp’s search for moral consistency. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 26(2), 145–154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Svenungsson, J. (2011). Enlightened prejudices: Anti-Jewish tropes in modern philosophy. In H. Ruin, & A. Ers (Eds.), Rethinking time: Essays on history, memory and representation (Vol. 9, pp. 279–290). Södertörn Philosophical Studies.

  • Svenungsson, J. (2020). The return of religion or the end of religion? On the need to rethink religion as a category of social and political life. Philosophy and Social Criticism. Publication pending. https://doi.org/10.1177/0191453719896384.

  • Svoboda, J. S., Adler, P. W., & van Howe, R. S. (2016). Circumcision is unethical and unlawful. Journal of Law & Medical Ethics, 44(2), 263–282. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073110516654120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Svoboda, J. S., & Darby, R. (2008). A rose by any other name? Symmetry and asymmetry in male and female genital cutting. In C. Zabus (Ed.), Fearful symmetries: Essays and testimonies around excision and circumcision (pp. 251–297). Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Union for Reform Judaism. (2011). Board of Trustees. Resolution on Anti-Circumcision Initiative. Adopted June 13, 2011. http://urj.org/about/union/governance/reso/?syspage=article&item_id=68500.

  • United Nations. (1948). General Assembly. Universal declaration of human rights.

  • United Nations. (1989). General Assembly. Convention on the rights of the child.

  • VanderWeele, T. J. (2017). On the promotion of human flourishing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A, 114(31), 8148–8156.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weber, M. (1921/1978). Economy and society. In G. Roth & C. Wittich (Eds.)., University of California Press.

  • Wen, N.J, Willard, A.K. Caughy, M., & Legare, C.H. (2020). Watch me, watch you: Ritual participation increases in-group displays and out-group monitoring in children. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, In press. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nicole_Wen/publication/338500923_Watch_me_watch_you_Ritual_participation_increases_in-group_displays_and_out-group_monitoring_in_children/links/5e17f94a4585159aa4c2eeb8/Watch-me-watch-you-Ritual-participation-increases-in-group-displays-and-out-group-monitoring-in-children.pdf.

  • Whitehouse, H. (1996). Rites of terror: Emotion, metaphor and memory in Melanesian initiation cults. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 2(4), 703–715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehouse, H. (2018). Dying for the group: Towards a general theory of extreme self-sacrifice. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 41(e192), 1–62. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x18000249. PMID: 29409552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO/UNAIDS (Word Health Organization—United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. (2010). Neonatal and child male circumcision: a global review. https://www.who.int/hiv/pub/malecircumcision/neonatal_child_MC_UNAIDS.pdf.

  • Williams, J. (2007). Incorporating children’s rights: The divergence in law and policy. Legal Studies, 27(2), 261–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2008). Male circumcision: global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability. Retrieved March 28, 2020, from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43749/97892?sequence=1.

  • Young, S. (1999). A utopian fallacy: Political power in Rawls’s “Political liberalism”. Journal of Social Philosophy, 30(1), 174–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank Raphael Cohen-Almogor, Ph.D., and Maury Silver, Ph.D., for valuable discussions; Kavita Shah Arora for collaboration on previous work in this area that has since shaped my thoughts; and Pamela R. Jacobs, J.D., Ph.D., for frequent discussions, for introducing me to numerous, concepts arising from social science, for helpful comments on this manuscript, and for overall support. Finally, the author wishes to thank two anonymous reviewers.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Gynecologic Oncology, Coney Island Hospital, 590 7th Street, Brooklyn, NY, 11215, USA

    Allan J. Jacobs

  2. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA

    Allan J. Jacobs

  3. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA

    Allan J. Jacobs

Authors
  1. Allan J. Jacobs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Allan J. Jacobs.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Jacobs, A.J. Is Physical Alteration a Sufficient Reason to Prohibit Ritual Infant Circumcision?. J Relig Health 60, 1672–1693 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-020-01139-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-020-01139-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation