Skip to main content
Log in

The Anatomy of Papal Tiara: A Story About Popes’ Contribution and Protection of Anatomists

  • Biographical Exploration
  • Published:
Journal of Religion and Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Omnes viae Romam ducunt (All roads lead to Rome)

Abstract

Beginning with the thirteenth century, the papacy has exerted an important role in the development of anatomy and medical sciences through the protection and support provided to anatomists, who were in most cases the personal physicians of the popes as well. The work is intended to be a lesson of anatomy of Papal tiara, presenting the most important contributing popes, the anatomists–physicians whom they supported and protected and the relations between papacy and medical sciences.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acierno, L. J. (1994). History of cardiology. New York: Parthenon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagliani, A. P. (1991). Medicine e Scienze della Natura alla Corte dei Papi nel Duecento. Spoleto: Centro Italiano di Studi sull’alto Medioevo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartalini, R. (1995). Siena medicea: l’accademia di Ippolito Agostini. Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa. Classe di Lettere e Filosofia, 25, 1475–1530.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bautch, R. J., & Racine, J. F. (2013). Beauty and the bible. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bayon, H. P. (1939). Allusions to a “Circulation” of blood in MSS anterior to De motu cordis 1628. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 32, 707–718.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bellorini, C. (2016). The world of plants in Renaissance Tuscany: Medicine and botany. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, J., & Goldoni, C. (1828). Memoirs of Goldoni (Vol. 1). London: Hunt and Clarke.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D. (1995). Pope John XXI, ophthalmologist. Documenta Ophthalmologica, 89, 75–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bloch, R. S. (2012). Healers and achievers: Physicians who excelled in other fields and the times in which they lived. Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bollet, A. J. (2004). Plague and poxes: The impact of human history on epidemic disease. New York: Demos Medical Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buret, F. (1895). Syphilis to-day and among the ancients (Vol. 2, 3). Philadelphia: The F. A. Davis Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burnham, P. E. (1978). The patronage of clement VI. History Today, 28, 372–381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlino, A. (1999). Books of the body: Anatomical ritual and renaissance learning. Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceccarelli, G. (2003). Archeology in medicine: Digging up into the tophi of Popes, Dukes and Kings. Reumatismo, 55, 123–130.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cesareo, G. A. (1938). Pasquino e pasquinate nella Roma de Leone X (Vol. 11). Roma: Società romana di storia patria.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clericuzio, A. (2017). Chemical medicine and paracelsianism in Italy. In M. Pelling & S. Mandelbrote (Eds.), The practice of reform in health, medicine, and science (pp. 1500–2000). Abingdon/New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coffin, D. R. (1979). The villa in the life of Renaissance Rome. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colombo, M. R. (1559). De Re Anatomica Libri XV. Venice: Nicolò Bevilacqua.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cordo, S. (1473). Synonyma Medicinae, Seu Clavis Sanationis. Milan: Antonio Zarothus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costea, C. F., Turliuc, Ş., Buzdugă, C., Cucu, A. I., Dumitrescu, G. F., Sava, A., et al. (2017a). The history of optic chiasm from antiquity to the twentieth century. Childs Nervous System, 33(11), 1889–1898.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costea, C., Turliuc, S., Cucu, A., Dumitrescu, G., Carauleanu, A., Buzduga, C., et al. (2017b). The “polymorphous” history of a polymorphous skull bone: The sphenoid. Anatomical Science International, 93(1), 14–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, A. (2016). The anatomist anatomist’s: An experimental discipline in enlightenment Europe. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, A. (1983). Food in motion: The migration of foodstuffs and cookery techniques. Leeds: Prospect Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Grummond, N. T. (2011). An encyclopedia of the history of classical archaeology. Abingdon/New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Rijk, L. M. (1970). On the life of Peter of Spain, the author of the Tractatus, called afterwards Summule logicales. Vivarium, 8, 123–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Santo, N. G., Bisaccia, C., De Santo, L. S., De Santo, R. M., Di Leo, V. A., Papalia, T., et al. (1999). Berengario da Carpi. American Journal of Nephrology, 19, 199–212.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Santo, N. G., Bisaccia, C., De Santo, R. M., & Touwaide, A. (2002). The pre-Vesalian kidney: Gabriele Zerbi, 1445–1505. American Journal of Nephrology, 22, 164–171.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Di Cicco C.O. (2015) History of Syphilis: a Night with Venus, a lifetime with Mercury. C Di Cicco.

  • Di Ieva, A., Gaetani, P., Matula, C., Sherif, C., Skopec, M., & Tschabitscher, M. (2011). Berengario da Carpi: a pioneer in neurotraumatology. Journal of Neurosurgery, 114, 1461–1470.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Di Ieva, A., Tschabitscher, M., & Rodriguez y Baena, R. (2007). Lancisi’s nerves and the seat of the soul. Neurosurgery, 60, 563–568.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dillon, A. (2016). Michelangelo and the English Martyrs. Abingdon/New York: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Doak, R. S. (2006). Pope Leo X: Opponent of the Reformation. Minneapolis: Compass Point Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobson, J. (1962). Anatomical Eponyms. Edinburgh: E & S Livingstone Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donovan, J. (1844). Rome, ancient and modern and its environs (Vol. 2). Rome: Crispino Puccinelli.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dowling, K. A., & Goodrich, J. T. (2016). Two cases of 16th century head injuries managed in royal European families. Neurosurgical Focus, 41, E2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dupont, M. (1999). Dictionnaire Historique des Médecins. Paris: Larousse-Bordas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eire, C. M. N. (2016). Reformations: The early modern world, 1450–1650. New Haven/London: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eknoyan, G., & De Santo, N. G. (1997). Realdo Colombo (1516–1559). A reappraisal. American Journal of Nephrology, 17, 261–268.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Engels, D. W. (1999). Classical cats: The rise and fall of the sacred cat. London/New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falconi, C. (1987). Leone X Giovanni de’Medici. Santarcangelo di Romagna: Rusconi Libri.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falloppio, G. (1564). De morbo gallico. Padua: L. Bertellum & C. Gryphium.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foote, J. (1917). Giovanni Maria Lancisi (1654–1720). International Clinic, 2, 292–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • French, R. K. (1985). Berengario da Carpi and the use of commentary in anatomical teaching. In A. Wear, R. K. French, & I. M. Lonie (Eds.), The medical renaissance of the sixteenth century. Cambridge/New York/Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fye, W. B. (1990). Giovanni Maria Lancisi, 1654–1720. Clinical Cardiology, 13, 670–671.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaudio, E., & Memoli, A. (XXXX). Brief summary of the faculty’s history. The Teaching of Medicine in Roma. http://www.farmaciamedicina.uniroma1.it/en/faculty/about-us/brief-summary-facultys-history.

  • Grendler, P. F. (2002). The universities of the Italian Renaissance. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurunluoglu, R., & Gurunluoglu, A. (2008). Giulio Cesare Arantius (1530–1589): A surgeon and anatomist: His role in nasal reconstruction and influence on Gaspare Tagliacozzi. Annals of Plastic Surgery, 60, 717–722.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gurunluoglu, R., Shafighi, M., Gurunluoglu, A., & Cavdar, S. (2011). Giulio Cesare Aranzio (Arantius) (1530-89) in the pageant of anatomy and surgery. Journal of Medical Biography, 19, 63–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutiérrez Rodilla, B. M. (2004). La Clavis sanationis, de Simón de Cordo (siglo XIII). Panace@, 5:287–288.

  • Hale, J. R. (1977). Renaissance Europe: Individual and Society, 1480–1520. Berkeley/Los Angeles/London: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, M. B. (2002). Henry Oldenbrug: Shaping the Royal Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, F. P. (1905). A review of the first book on the diseases of the eye, by Benvenutus Grassus, 1474: Exhibition of three other fifteenth century monographs (a) the first medical dictionary, Synonyma Simonis Genuensis, 1473; (b) The first book on diet, by Isaac, 1487, (c) the second edition of the first book on diseases of children, by Paulus Bagellardus, 1487. Medical Library and Historical Journal, 3, 27–40.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hispanus, Petrus., & Berger, A. M. (1899). Liber de oculo. München: Lehmann JF.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hosler, J. D. (2014). Gregory the Great’s gout: Suffering, penitence, and diplomacy in the early middle ages. In M. Frassetto, M. Gabriele, & J. D. Hosler (Eds.), Where heaven and earth meet: Essays on medieval Europe in Honor of Daniel F. Callahan. Leiden/Boston: Brill.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Humphry, G. M. (1882). Cesalpino and Harvey. Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 17, 125–128.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, O. (2017). Dr. William Hobbys: The promiscuous king’s promiscuous doctor. Pittsburgh: Dorrance Publishing Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ilardi, V. (2007). Renaissance vision from spectacles to telescopes. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • JAMA (1965). Guy de Chauliac (c. 1300–1368)-father of surgery. JAMA, 191, 408–409 (no authors listed).

  • Janin, H. (2008). The university in medieval life, 1179–1499. Jefferson/North Carolina/London: McFarland and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • John Paul II (1992). Letter to the rector of Padua University. Il Gazzettino, 5.

  • Karamanou, M., & Androutsos, G. (2010). Completing the puzzle of blood circulation: The discovery of capillaries. Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology, 115, 175–179.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaye, J. (2014). A history of balance 1250–1375: The emergence of a new model of equilibrium and its impact on thought. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, S. W. (1905). The doctor’s recreation series (Vol. 11). Akron: Saalfield Publishing Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. N. D. (1990). Grande Dizionario illustrato dei Papi. Segrate: Piemme.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaassen, Z., Chen, J., Dixit, V., Tubbs, R. S., Shoja, M. M., & Loukas, M. (2011). Giovanni Maria Lancisi (1654–1720): anatomist and papal physician. Clinical Anatomy, 24, 802–806.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinhenz, C. (2004). Medieval Italy: An encyclopedia. New York/Abingdon: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinhenz, C. (2016). Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia (Vol. 2). Abingdon/New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knight, S. (1917). Blood transfusion. The Grace Hospital Bulletin, 2, 16–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kousoulis, A. A., Karamanou, M., & Androutsos, G. (2011). Andrés Laguna (1499–1559). Acta Medica Portuguesa, 24, 671–674.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lancisi, G. M. (1707). De subitaneis mortibus. Rome: Francisci Buagni.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lancisi, G. M. (1971). De subitaneis mortibus (On Sudden Deaths), translations by White PD, Boursy AV. New York: St. John’s University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lind, L. R., & Da Carpi, B. (1990). Berengario da Carpi on Fracture of the Skull or Cranium (Vol. 80). Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maggi, B. (1552). De vulnerum sclopetorum, et bombardarum curatione tractatus. Bologna: Bartolomeo Bonardo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magill, F. N., & Aves, A. (1998). Dictionary of world biography: The middle ages (Vol. 2). Abingdon/New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Major, R. H. (1954). A history of medicine (Vol. 1). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mantovani, A., & Zanetti, R. (1993). Giovanni Maria Lancisi: De bovilla peste and stamping out. Historia Medicinae Veterinariae, 18, 97–110.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maras, R. J. (1984). Innocent XI: Pope of Christian Unity. Notre Dame: Cross Cultural Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, S. (2015). A short history of disease: Plague, poxes and civilisations. Harpenden: Oldcastle Books Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • McBrien, R. P. (1997). Lives of the Popes: The pontiffs from St. Peter to John Paul II. New York: Harper Collins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meli, D. B. (1997). Marcello Malpighi: Anatomist and physician. Firenze: Olschki.

    Google Scholar 

  • Napier, H. E. (1846). Florentine history, from the earliest authentic records to the accession of Ferdinand the third, grand duke of Tuscany (Vol. 1). London: Eduard Moxon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nardi, P. (1992). Relations between secular authorities and Universities in the Thirteenth Century. In H. De Ridder-Symoens (Ed.), A history of the University in Europe: Universities in the middle ages (Vol. 1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nuland, S. B. (1989). Doctors: A biography of medicine. New York: Knopf.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • O’Malley, C. D. (1980). Costanzo Varolio. In C. C. Gillispie (Ed.), Dictionary of scientific biography (Vol. 13). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pacifici, V. (1921). Un carme biografico di Sisto IV del 1477. Tivoli: Società Tiburtina di Storia e d’Arte.

    Google Scholar 

  • Para, H. (2016). Plague, papacy and power: The effect of the black plague on the avignon papacy. Saber and Scroll, 5, 7–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paravicini-Bagliani, A. (2000). The Pope’s body. Chicago/London: The Unversity of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, K. (1994). The criminal and the saintly body: Autopsy and dissection in Renaissance Italy. Renaissance Quarterly, 47, 1–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park, K. (1995). The life of the corpse: Division and dissection in late medieval Europe. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 50, 111–132.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petella, J. B. (1897–1898). A critical and historical study of the knowledge of ophthalmology of a philosopher physician who became Pope. Amsterdam: Janus, Archives International es pour l’histoire de la Medicine et pour la Geographie Medicale.

  • Pilcher, J. E. (1895). Guy de Chauliac and Henri de Mondeville: A surgical retrospect. Annals of Surgery, 21, 84–102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pilcher, L. S. (1918). A List of Books By Some of the Old Masters of Medicine and Surgery Together With Books on The History of Medicine and on Medical Biography in the Possession of Lewis Stephen Pilcher; With Biographical and Bibliographical Notes and Reproductions of Some Title Pages and Captions. New York: Brooklyn.

  • Pouyan, N. (2014). Marcello Malpighi, the founder of biological microscopy. Journal of Microbiology Research, 4, 170–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prioreschi, P. (2003). A history of medicine: Medieval medicine (Vol. 5). Omaha: Horatius Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Putti, V. (1937). Berengario da Carpi: Saggio Biografico e Bibliografico, Seguito dalla Traduzione del “De Fractura Calvae sive Cranei”. Bologna: L. Cappelli.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rees, A. (1819). The cycoplaedia or, universal dictionary of arts, sciences and literature (Vol. 6). London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Retief, F., & Cilliers, L. P. (2006). Diseases and causes of death among the Popes. Acta Theologica, 26, 233–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reverón, R. R. (2011). Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694), founder of microanatomy. International Journal of Morphology, 29, 399–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rumsey, T. R. (1981). Men and women of the renaissance and reformation, 1300–1600. New York/London: Longman Publishing Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarton, G. (1927–1948). Introduction to the history of science, Vol. 2. Baltimore: Williams&Wilkins.

  • Schedel, H. & Schmauch, W.W. (1947/2010). First English edition of the Nuremberg chronicle; being the Liber chronicarum of Dr. Hartmann Schedel, A. D. 1493. Translated from the First German Edition by Walter W. Schmauch of Chicago with Text Annotations and Woodcut Elucidations in Six Volumes. Madison: University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center.

  • Stensvold, A. (2015). A history of pregnancy in Christianity: From original sin to contemporary abortion debates. New York/Abingdon: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Summerfield, C., & Devine, M. E. (1998). International dictionary of university histories. Abingdon/New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, N. M. (2002). Henry IV of France and the Politics of Religion: 1572–1596: The Path to Rome (Vol. 2). Bristol/Portland: Elm Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, C. (2005). Heresy in medieval France: Dualism in Aquitaine and the Agenais 1000–1249. Woodbridge/Rochester: The Boydell Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiene, G. (1997). The discovery of circulation and the origin of modern medicine during the Italian Renaissance. Cardiovascular Pathology, 6, 79–88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tubbs, R. S., Loukas, M., Shoja, M. M., Apaydin, N., Ardalan, M. R., Shokouhi, G., et al. (2008). Costanzo Varolio (Constantius Varolius 1543–1575) and the Pons Varolli. Neurosurgery, 62, 734–737.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vergani, F., Morris, C. M., Mitchell, P., & Duffau, H. (2012). Raymond de Vieussens and his contribution to the study of white matter anatomy: Historical vignette. Journal of Neurosurgery, 117, 1070–1075.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veterinary History Society. (2003). Veterinary history, Vol. 12–13. New York: Cornell University Press.

  • Wallis, F. (2010). Medieval medicine: A reader. Toronto/Plymouth: University of Toronto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, J. J. (1915). The Popes and science: The history of the papal relations to science during the middle ages and down to our own time. New York: Fordham University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watters, D. A. (2013). Guy de Chauliac: Pre-eminent surgeon of the middle ages. ANZ Journal of Surgery, 83, 730–734.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, M. (2012). The lived experience of the black death. The Spectrum: A Scholars Day Journal, 1, 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisz, G. M. (1997). The papal contribution to the development of modern medicine. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery, 67, 472–475.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westfall, R. S. (1995a). Canano [Canani, Cannano], Giovanni Battista in The Galileo Project. http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/canano.html.

  • Westfall, R. S. (1995b). Varolio, Costanzo in The Galileo Project. http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/varolio.html.

  • White, F. A. (2009). Physical signs in medicine and surgery: An atlas of rare, lost and forgotten physical signs. Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation LLC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, S. J. (2003). The secret of secrets: The scholarly career of a pseudo-aristotelian text in the Latin middle ages. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, J. B. (1972). Louis XIV: A profile. London/Basingstoke: The Macmillan Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Claudia Florida Costea.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the article content was composed in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The authors declare that they have no conflict or interest.

Human and Animal Rights

This article is a novel work and does not include research involving human participants and/or animals. This manuscript is our original work and is free from plagiarism; each author has participated sufficiently in the work. The order of authorship is as stated on the title page of the manuscript. Each of us has seen the final version of the manuscript submitted for publication and has approved of it. The manuscript has been read and approved by all authors. This manuscript or a substantial part of it has not been submitted to any other journal for publication. It has also not been published previously.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Cucu, A.I., Costea, C.F., Perciaccante, A. et al. The Anatomy of Papal Tiara: A Story About Popes’ Contribution and Protection of Anatomists. J Relig Health 58, 1307–1327 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00772-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00772-3

Keywords

Navigation