Abstract
Previous research has shown that religion reduces adolescents’ risk of substance use, while having little impact on sexual risk-taking. However, few studies have examined how religion might mitigate adolescents’ involvement with both drugs and sex. Using the Child Development Supplement (CDS) in combination with the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), we fill this gap by determining how adolescents’ involvement with both drugs and sex is related to religiosity. We find the statistically significant relationship between religiosity and adolescents’ involvement in both risk behaviors is accounted for by school attachment, but the relationship between religiosity and drugs is robust.
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Notes
For more information on this procedure see: http://www.psidonline.isr.umich.edu/Guide/.
The values that were employed for family size and family income respectively constitute an averaging of the previous and future values of these variables due to data availability by year. Family income in 2003 is also deflated to 2001 values using the national CPI in order to maintain comparability of income estimates between the 2 years. Therefore, the overall construction of family income for 2002 was: \( {\text{FamilyIncome}}_{2002} \equiv \frac{{{\text{FamilyIncome}}_{2001} + ({\text{FamilyIncome}}_{2003} )(1/1.039)}}{2}. \)
It was impossible to distinguish individuals who had no formal education from those who did not answer the education question. For this reason, observations with no education were dropped from the dataset. The choice of the household head’s education alone, rather than using both parent’s education, was also due to the particular construction of the dataset and questionnaire. The sample overrepresented single mothers and for this reason there was sometimes only one parent present to use for parental educational background. The present structure follows that employed in other studies using CDS data.
We initially focused our analysis to a greater extent on the effects of volunteering as well as religiosity on risk behaviors due to the focus both of these characteristics share on social norms and superego concerns. We found essentially no statistically significant impacts of volunteering on risk behaviors at the conventional level and so decided to restrict our attention primarily to religiosity. However, we have continued to employ volunteering as a control characteristic to show that leaving it out does not bias our results.
Some results are suppressed for brevity and because it was not logical to include regressions for early age sex for some specifications of the sample. General patterns of suppressed results are consistent with those seen in the regression analysis.
Obviously it is also possible to control for other factors, however, many of these other effects are already proxied by employing the demographic variables used in the present analysis.
The other races involved in the analysis were controlled for in regressions but not displayed in the summary statistics because they were not a significant portion of the sample. They have particularly low representation rates in the aged 14 and over portion of the sample.
A differenced probit is used rather than a standard probit model in order to provide marginal coefficients on the right hand side variables. Issues of significance will not change when moving between the probit and the differenced probit model. It is only used for interpretation of results.
Notice that there will be different numbers of observations depending on whether we use the all-age sample or the age 14 and over sample and on which of the outcome risk characteristics we are employing since the samples were only balanced on the right hand side variables and not on the risk factors.
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Appendix: PSID and CDS Questions
Appendix: PSID and CDS Questions
Risk Factors
Had Sex
The next questions are about your sexual experiences. Your responses to the questions in this section and the other sections are private. The person who interviewed you, your parents, friends, siblings, teachers, and other people you know will not see your responses. In fact, the people who will look at your responses will not know your name or have any way to identify you. Have you ever had sexual intercourse (that is, “had sex”, “made it,” etc.)?: 1 = Yes, 2 = No, 9 = NA 0 = Inapplicable (not in sample)
Time of First Sex
When did you have intercourse for the first time? Record the month here, and the year on the next screen: 1 = January, 2 = February, 3 = March, 4 = April, 5 = May, 6 = June, 7 = July, 8 = August, 9 = September, 10 = October, 11 = November, 12 = December, 99 = NA, 0 = Inapplicable
In what year did you have sexual intercourse for the first time? 999 = NA, 1991 = 2,003 = Year, 0 = Inapplicable
Condom Use
Thinking of all the times you have had sexual intercourse, about how often have you and your partner used a condom?
1 = None of the time, 2 = Some of the time, 3 = Half of the time, 4 = Most of the time,
5 = All of the time, 9 = NA, 0 = Inapplicable
Demographic Characteristics
Age
Child’s age at time of Interview: 4.99–20.99
Gender
Sex of Individual: 1 = Male, 2 = Female
Family Size
Number of Persons in FU at the Time of the 2001 Interview: 1–20 = Actual Number
Family Income
Total 2000 Family Money Income
Please note that this variable can contain negative values. Negative values indicate a net loss, which in waves prior to 1994 were bottom coded at $1, as were zero amounts. These losses occur as a result of business or farm losses.
This variable is the sum of these seven variables: ER20449 Head and Wife/”Wife” Taxable Income-2000 ER20450 Head and Wife/”Wife” Transfer Income-2000 ER20453 Taxable Income of Other FU Members-2000 ER20454 Transfer Income of OFUMS-2000 ER20455 Total Family Social Security Income-2000
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(−999,999) = Loss of $999,999 or more
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(−999,998)–(−1) = Actual loss
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0 = No family money income in 2000
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1–9,999,998 = Actual amount
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9,999,999 = $9,999,999 or more
Education Level of Father
(Question Repeated for Mother): 1 = Less than high school diploma, 2 = High school diploma or GED, 3 = Some college, 4 = Bachelor’s degree, 5 = Master’s degree, 6 = Doctorate degree, 8 = Don’t Know, 9 = NA, refused to answer
Race/Ethnicity
What do you call your racial or ethnic group?
1 = African American, 2 = White, 3 = Hispanic,
4 = Asian/Pacific Islander, 5 = American Indian or Alaskan Native, 6 = Multi-Racial, 98 = Don’t Know, 99/0 = not in sample, refuse
Commitment, Home Life, Attachment, Religion, and Volunteering
Commitment/Attachment
How long have you lived in your current neighborhood?
1 = Less than 1 year, 2 = 1 year to less than 3 years, 3 = 3 to less than 5 years, 4 = 5 years or more, 8 = Don’t Know, 9 = NA, refused to answer
How difficult is it for you to tell a stranger in your neighborhood from someone who is a resident?
1 = Not at all difficult, 2 = Somewhat difficult, 3 = Very difficult, 8 = Don’t Know, 9 = NA, refused to answer
Neighbor Intervention: (four separate questions)
How likely is it that a neighbor would do something if
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Someone was trying to sell drugs to your children in plain sight?
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Your kids were getting into trouble?
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A child was showing disrespect to an adult?
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A child was taking something out of a neighbor’s apartment, house, garage, car or yard? 1 = Very unlikely, 2 = Unlikely, 3 = Likely, 4 = Very likely, 8 = Don’t Know, 9 = NA, refused to answer
Please tell me how often the child had participated in the following activities within the past 12 months
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Athletic team.
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Library story hour.
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Visiting a friend’s or neighbor’s house.
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Going to a community center like a YMCA.
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Scouting (e.g. Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts).
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Church (or other religious) club or activity—not religious service or mass.
NOTE: religious attendance coded under religiosity for variable construction, but it was initially asked in this section so it was listed here.
School Attachment
Letter Word Raw Test Score
0–58 = Actual Score, 99 = Not Ascertained
Passage Comprehension Raw Score
0–43 = Actual Score, 99 = Not Ascertained
Applied Problems Raw Score
0–60 = Actual Score, 99 = Not Ascertained
Expulsion from School
1 = Yes, 2 = No, 8 = Don’t Know, 9 = NA, refused to answer, 0 = Inapplicable
Home Life
Whether biological grandparents live with child in FU—2001
1 = Biological grandparent(s) living in FU, 2 = No biological grandparent(s) living in FU, 3 = Biological grandparents at institution (e.g., nursing home, jail), 4 = Child at institution (e.g., college, military, jail), 0 = Inapp./no data.
Volunteered
Were you involved in any volunteer service activities or service clubs in the last 12 months? 1 = Yes, 2 = No, 9 = NA, 0 = Inapplicable (not in sample)
Religiosity
How important is religion to you? 1 = Not at all important, 2 = Not very important, 3 = Somewhat important, 4 = Very important, 8 = Don’t Know, 9 = NA, refused to answer
0 = Inapplicable (not in sample)
How much comfort do you get from your religion? 1 = No Comfort, 2 = Just a little bit of comfort, 3 = Somewhat important, 4 = Very important, 8 = Don’t Know, 9 = NA, refused to answer, 0 = Inapplicable (not in sample)
See Earlier Note for Religious Activity Meeting Variable.
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Neymotin, F., Downing-Matibag, T.M. Religiosity and Adolescents’ Involvement with Both Drugs and Sex. J Relig Health 52, 550–569 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-011-9507-3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-011-9507-3