Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Stacked Deck: An Effective, School-Based Program for the Prevention of Problem Gambling

  • Original Research
  • Published:
The Journal of Primary Prevention Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

School-based prevention programs are an important component of problem gambling prevention, but empirically effective programs are lacking. Stacked Deck is a set of 5–6 interactive lessons that teach about the history of gambling; the true odds and “house edge”; gambling fallacies; signs, risk factors, and causes of problem gambling; and skills for good decision making and problem solving. An overriding theme of the program is to approach life as a “smart gambler” by determining the odds and weighing the pros versus cons of your actions. A total of 949 grade 9–12 students in 10 schools throughout southern Alberta received the program and completed baseline and follow-up measures. These students were compared to 291 students in 4 control schools. Four months after receiving the program, students in the intervention group had significantly more negative attitudes toward gambling, improved knowledge about gambling and problem gambling, improved resistance to gambling fallacies, improved decision making and problem solving, decreased gambling frequency, and decreased rates of problem gambling. There was no change in involvement in high risk activities or money lost gambling. These results indicate that Stacked Deck is a promising curriculum for the prevention of problem gambling.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. A recent U.S. national study found lower rates of problem gambling in adolescents and young adults compared to all adults (Welte et al. 2008).

  2. A hierarchical multilevel analysis could have been used in recognition of the nested structure of the data (i.e., students within schools). However, while the delivery of the intervention was based in the schools, this was simply a mechanism by which to draw the sample. The focus of the intervention was still primarily on the individual. Furthermore, an individual level analysis is justified considering the lack of any significant community or school effects on program outcomes (see Impact of Mediating Variables on Changes in Gambling Behavior section) and because of the homogeneity of the student population in southern Alberta.

  3. The failure to find unambiguous decreases in problem gambling from baseline to follow-up is likely due to low statistical power. The failure to find significant decreases in gambling monetary losses is partly due to the low average amounts being wagered plus the high variability in these amounts.

  4. The ascertainment of problem gambling in adolescents is an under researched and controversial area (Derevensky et al. 2003). There is good evidence that certain instruments have produced elevated prevalence rates due to measurement error (i.e., South Oaks Gambling Scale and South Oaks Gambling Scale Revised for Adolescents; Ladouceur et al. 2000). The possibility also exists that the instability in problem gambling seen in the present study reflects a measurement problem. A team of researchers under the aegis of the Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse has been working on the development of a new, well validated instrument for the past several years.

References

  • Alberta Gaming Research Institute (2010). Gambling prevalence: Canada, United States, International. Retrieved from http://www.abgaminginstitute.ualberta.ca/library_reference.cfm.

  • Borich, G. D. (2006). Effective teaching methods: Research-based practice (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capuzzi, D., & Gross, D. R. (2000). Youth risk: A prevention resource for counselors, teachers, and parents (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. (1999). Alcohol and drug prevention programs for youth: What works?. Toronto, Canada: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, R. M. (2003). Prevention of problem gambling: A school-based intervention. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42(05), 1875.

  • Dempster, F. N. (1989). Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practise. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 309–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derevensky, J. L., Gupta, R., & Winters, K. (2003). Prevalence rates of youth gambling problems: Are the current rates inflated? Journal of Gambling Studies, 19(4), 405–425.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dickson, L. M., Derevensky, J. L., & Gupta, R. (2002). The prevention of gambling problems in youth: A conceptual framework. Journal of Gambling Studies, 18, 97–159.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donovan, J. J., & Radosevich, D. J. (1999). A meta-analytic review of the distribution of practice effect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 795–805.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Driskell, J. E., Willis, R. P., & Copper, C. (1992). Effect of overlearning on retention. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 615–622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duperrex, O. J. M., Roberts, I. G., & Bunn, F. (2002). Safety education of pedestrians for injury prevention. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (2), CD001531. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001531.

  • Durlak, J. A. (1997). Primary prevention programs in schools. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 283–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Durlak, J. A., & Wells, A. M. (1997). Primary prevention mental health programs for children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 115–152.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton, D. K., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Ross, J., Hawkins, J., Harris, W. A., et al. (2006). Youth risk behavior surveillance—United States 2005. The Journal of School Health, 76(7), 353–372.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, S. N., Kratochwill, T. R., & Cook, J. L. (1999). Educational psychology: Effective teaching, effective learning (3rd ed.). Whitby, Canada: McGraw Hill College Division.

    Google Scholar 

  • Etter, J.-F., & Bouvier, P. (2006). Some doubts about one of the largest smoking prevention programmes in Europe, the smokefree class competition. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60, 757–759.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faggiano, F., Vigna-Taglianti, F., Versino, E., Zambon, A., Borraccino, A., & Lemma, P. (2005). School-based prevention for illicit drugs’ use. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (2), CD003020. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003020.pub2.

  • Ferentzy, P., Turner, N. E., & Skinner, W. (2006). The prevention of pathological gambling: An annotated bibliography. Journal of Gambling Issues, 17, 1–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferland, F., Ladouceur, R., & Vitaro, F. (2002). Prevention of problem gambling: Modifying misconceptions and increasing knowledge. Journal of Gambling Studies, 18(1), 19–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferland, F., Ladouceur, R., & Vitaro, F. (2005). Efficiency of a gambling prevention program for youths: Results from the pilot study. Encephale, 31(4), 427–436.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, S. (2000). Developing the DSM-IV criteria to identify adolescent problem gambling in non-clinical populations. Journal of Gambling Studies, 16, 253–273.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foxcroft, D. R., Lister-Sharp, D., & Lowe, G. (1997). Alcohol misuse prevention for young people: A systematic review reveals methodological concerns and lack of reliable evidence of effectiveness. Addiction, 92, 531–537.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, C., Grant, D., Corcoran, J., Miller, P., & Bultman, L. (1997). Effectiveness of prevention programs for adolescent pregnancy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59, 551–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaboury, A., & Ladouceur, R. (1993). Evaluation of a prevention program for pathological gambling among adolescents. Journal of Primary Prevention, 14, 21–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, S., McCambridge, J., Smith, L. A., & Foxcroft, D. (2006). Interventions for prevention of drug use by young people delivered in non-school settings. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (1), CD005030. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005030.pub2.

  • Gerstein, D. R., Volberg, R. A., Toce, M. T., Harwood, H., Johnson, R. A., & Buie, T., et al. (1999). Gambling impact and behavior study. Report to the National Gambling Impact Study Commission. Chicago, IL: National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago.

  • Grilli, R., Ramsay, C., & Minozzi, S. (2002). Mass media interventions: Effects on health services utilization. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (1), CD000389.

  • Gupta, R., & Derevensky, J. L. (1998). Adolescent gambling behavior: A prevalence study and examination of the correlates associated with problem gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 14, 319–345.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hardoon, K. K., & Derevensky, J. L. (2001). Social influences involved in children’s gambling behavior. Journal of Gambling Studies, 17, 191–215.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, G. H., Touzel, T. J., & Wiseman, D. G. (1999). Effective teaching. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • International Centre for Youth Gambling Problems and High-Risk Behaviors. (2004). New CD-ROM prevention tool. Retrieved from http://www.youthgambling.com/.

  • Janz, N. K., Champion, V. L., & Strecher, V. J. (2002). The health belief model. In K. Glanz, B. K. Rimer, & F. M. Lewis (Eds.), Health behavior and health education. Toronto, Canada: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joukhador, J., Maccallum, F., & Blaszczynski, A. (2003). Differences in cognitive distortions between problem and social gamblers. Psychological Reports, 92(3, Pt. 2), 1203–1214.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ladouceur, R., Bouchard, C., Rheaume, N., Jacques, C., Ferland, F., LeBlond, J., et al. (2000). Is the SOGS an accurate measure of pathological gambling among children, adolescents, and adults? Journal of Gambling Studies, 16, 1–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ladouceur, R., Ferland, F., & Fournier, P. (2003). Correction of erroneous perceptions among primary school students regarding the notions of chance and randomness in gambling. American Journal of Health Education, 34, 272–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladouceur, R., Ferland, F., Roy, C., Pelletier, O., Bussières, E.-L., & Auclair, E. (2004a). Prévention du jeu excessif chez les adolescents: Une approche cognitive. Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive, 14(3), 124–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ladouceur, R., Ferland, F., & Vitaro, F. (2004b). Prevention of problem gambling: Modifying misconceptions and increasing knowledge among Canadian youths. Journal of Primary Prevention, 25(3), 329–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ladouceur, R., Ferland, F., Vitaro, F., & Pelletier, O. (2005). Modifying youths’ perception toward pathological gamblers. Addictive Behaviors, 30, 351–354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lavoie, M.-P., & Ladouceur, R. (2004). Prevention of gambling among youth: Increasing knowledge and modifying attitudes toward gambling. Journal of Gambling Issues (formerly eGambling: The Electronic Journal of Gambling Issues), 10. Retrieved from http://www.camh.net/egambling/issue10/ejgi_10_lavoie_ladouceur.html.

  • Lemaire, J., de Lima, S., & Patton, D. (2004). It’s Your Lucky Day: Program evaluation. Winnipeg, Canada: The Addictions Foundation of Manitoba.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (1993). The efficacy of psychological, education and behavioral treatment: Confirmation from meta-analysis. American Psychologist, 48, 1181–1209.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merzel, C., & D’Afflitti, J. (2003). Reconsidering community-based health promotion: Promise, performance, and potential. American Journal of Public Health, 93(4), 557–574.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. R., Wilbourne, P. L., & Hettema, J. E. (2003). What works? A summary of alcohol treatment outcome research. In R. K. Hester & W. R. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of alcoholism treatment approaches (3rd ed., pp. 13–63). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, S., & Ohtsuka, K. (1999). Beliefs about control over gambling among young people and their relation to problem gambling. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 13(4), 339–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mullen, P. D., Simons-Morton, D. G., Ramirez, G., et al. (1997). A meta-analysis of trials evaluating patient education and counseling for three groups of preventative health behaviors. Patient Education and Counseling, 32, 157–173.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mytton, J. A., DiGuiseppi, C., Gough, D., Taylor, R. S., & Logan, S. (2006). School-based secondary prevention programmes for preventing violence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (3), CD004606. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004606.pub2.

  • Nation, M., Crusto, C., Wandersman, A., Kumpfer, K. L., Seybolt, D., Morrissey-Kane, E., et al. (1993). What works in prevention. American Psychologist, 58(6/7), 449–456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neal, P., Delfabbro, P., & O’Neil, M. (2005). Problem gambling and harm: Towards a national definition. Commissioned for the Ministerial Council on Gambling. Prepared by the SA Centre for Economic Studies with the Department of Psychology, University of Adelaide. November 2005. http://www.adelaide.edu.au/saces/gambling/publications/ProblemGamblingAndHarmTowardNationalDefinition.pdf.

  • National Research Council. (1999). Pathological gambling: A critical review. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelletier, A., Ladouceur, R., Fortin, J., & Ferland, F. (2004). Assessment of high school students’ understanding of DSM-IV-MR-J items. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 224–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petry, N. M. (2005). Pathological gambling: Etiology, comorbidity, and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Productivity Commission. (1999). Australia’s gambling industries (Report No. 10). Canberra, Australia: AusInfo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, I. G., & Kwan, I. (2001). School-based driver education for the prevention of traffic crashes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (3), CD003201. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003201.

  • Rönnberg, S., Volberg, R. A., Abbott, M. W., Moore, W. L., Andren, A., Munck, I. l., et al. (1999). Gambling and problem gambling in Sweden. Report No. 2 of the National Institute of Public Health Series on Gambling. Stockholm, Sweden: National Institute of Public Health.

  • Secker-Walker, R., Gnich, W., Platt, S., & Lancaster, T. (2002). Community interventions for reducing smoking among adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (2), CD001745. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001745.

  • Shaffer, H. J., & Hall, M. N. (2001). Updating and refining meta-analytic prevalence estimates of disordered gambling behavior in the United States and Canada. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 92(3), 168–172.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, H. J., Hall, M. N., & VanderBilt, J. V. (1997). Estimating the prevalence of disordered gambling in the United States and Canada: A meta-analysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Medical School Division of Addictions.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slater, M. D., Kelly, K. J., Edwards, R. W., Thurman, P. J., Plested, G. B. A., Keefe, T. J., et al. (2005). Combining in-school and community-based media efforts: Reducing marijuana and alcohol uptake among younger adolescents. Health Education Research, 21, 157–167.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sowden, A. J., & Stead, L. F. (2003). Community interventions for preventing smoking in young people. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (1), CD001291. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001291.

  • Spinks, A., Turner, C., Nixon, J., & McClure, R. J. (2009). The ‘WHO Safe Communities’ model for the prevention of injury in whole populations. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (3), CD004445. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004445.pub3.

  • Stacy, A. W., Bentler, P. M., & Flay, B. R. (1994). Attitudes and health behavior in diverse populations: Drunk driving, alcohol use, binge eating, marijuana use, and cigarette use. Health Psychology, 13(1), 73–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Canada. (2003). Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS)—Mental health & well-being (Cycle 1.2). Retrieved from http://www.statcan.ca/cgi-bin/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&SDDS=5015&lang=en&db=IMDB&dbg=f&adm=8&dis=2.

  • Stockwell, T., Gruenewald, P. J., Toumbourou, J. W., & Loxley, W. (2005). Preventing harmful substance use: The evidence base for policy and practice. New York: Wiley. Retrieved from http://www.carbc.uvic.ca/pubs/FollowingEvidence_web.pdf.

  • Thomas, R. E., & Perera, R. (2006). School-based programmes for preventing smoking. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (3), CD001293. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001293.pub2.

  • Tobler, N. S., Roona, M. R., Ochshorn, P., Marshall, D. G., Streke, A. V., & Stackpole, K. M. (2000). School-based adolescent drug prevention programs: 1998 meta-analysis. Journal of Primary Prevention, 20, 275–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toneatto, T., Blitz-Miller, T., Calderwood, K., Dragonetti, R., & Tsanos, A. (1997). Cognitive distortions in heavy gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 13, 253–266.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, N., MacDonald, J., Bartoshuk, M., & Zangeneh, M. (2008). The evaluation of a 1-hour prevention program for problem gambling. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 6(2), 238–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wandersman, A., & Florin, P. (2003). Community interventions and effective prevention. American Psychologist, 58(6/7), 441–448.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weissberg, R. P., & Gullotta, T. P. (1997). Healthy children 2010: Enhancing children’s wellness. Issues in children’s and families’ lives (Vol. 8). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welte, J. W., Barnes, G. M., Tidwell, M.-C., & Hoffman, J. H. (2008). The prevalence of problem gambling among U.S. adolescents and young adults: Results from a national survey. Journal of Gambling Studies, 24, 119–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. J. (2002). Prevention of problem gambling: A school-based intervention (Research Report). Retrieved from Alberta Gaming Research Institute website: http://www.uleth.ca/dspace/handle/10133/370.

  • Williams, R. J. (2003). Reliability and validity of four scales to assess gambling attitudes, gambling knowledge, gambling fallacies and ability to calculate gambling odds. Unpublished manuscript, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.

  • Williams, R. J., & Chang, S. (2000). Comprehensive and comparative review of adolescent drug abuse treatment outcome. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice, 7, 138–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. J., & Connolly, D. (2006). Does learning more about the mathematics of gambling change gambling behavior? Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20(1), 62–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. J., West, B., & Simpson, R. (2007). Prevention of problem gambling. In G. Smith, D. Hodgins, & R. J. Williams (Eds.), Research and measurement issues in gambling studies (pp. 399–435). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. J., West, B., & Simpson, R. (2008). Prevention of problem gambling: A comprehensive review of the evidence 2008. Report prepared for the Ontario Problem Gambling Research Centre, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10133/414.

  • Wilson, D. B., Gottfredson, D. C., & Najaka, S. S. (2001). School-based prevention of problem behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 17, 247–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, R. T., & Williams, R. J. (2007). How much money do you spend on gambling? The comparative validity of question wordings used to assess gambling expenditure. International Journal of Social Research Methodology Theory and Practice, 10(1), 63–77.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The Stacked Deck program was developed by Dr. Williams and Dr. Wood. Evaluation of the program was funded by the Alberta Gaming Research Institute. The authors would like to thank the Institute for their financial support; the Research Assistants who skillfully administered the program (Lyndsey Dangerfield, Tammy Gillis, Jordyn Karltyn, Sonya Malhotra, and Margie Spry); and all the School Boards and individual students who participated.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, TIJ 3X1, Canada

    Robert J. Williams

  2. Department of Sociology, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, TIJ 3X1, Canada

    Robert T. Wood

  3. Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada

    Shawn R. Currie

Authors
  1. Robert J. Williams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Robert T. Wood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Shawn R. Currie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert J. Williams.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Williams, R.J., Wood, R.T. & Currie, S.R. Stacked Deck: An Effective, School-Based Program for the Prevention of Problem Gambling. J Primary Prevent 31, 109–125 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-010-0212-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-010-0212-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation