Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Pathological Gambling in Estonia: Relationships with Personality, Self-Esteem, Emotional States and Cognitive Ability

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Gambling Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Due to changes in gambling accessibility during the last decade gambling has become more widespread in Estonia and the prevalence of pathological gambling has sharply increased. The present study attempts to identify psychological characteristics of Estonian pathological gamblers. It has been shown that a wide range of social, economic, and individual factors (e.g. personality traits and emotional states) predict the likelihood of becoming a pathological gambler. In the present study, pathological gamblers’ (N = 33) personality traits, self-esteem, self-reported emotional states and cognitive ability were compared to the respective characteristics in a non-gambling control group (N = 42) matched for age, gender and educational level. It was found that compared to controls, pathological gamblers had higher scores on Neuroticism (especially on its immoderation facet) and lower scores on Conscientiousness (especially on its dutifulness and cautiousness facets) and on self-esteem scale. They reported more negative emotional states during the previous month (especially depression and anxiety). Finally, pathological gamblers had lower general cognitive ability. In a logistic regression model, the likelihood of being a pathological gambler was best predicted by high immoderation score and low cognitive ability.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. In the present results, however, the interaction term between Neuroticism (or its facet immoderation) and cognitive ability did not significantly predict being a gambler.

References

  • Abbott, M., & Volberg, R. (1994). Gambling and pathological gambling: Growth industry and growth pathology of the 1990s. Community Mental Health in New Zealand, 9, 22–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allcock, C. C., & Grace, D. M. (1988). Pathological gamblers are neither impulsive nor sensation seekers. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 22, 307–311. doi:10.3109/00048678809161212.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aluoja, A., Shlik, J., Vasar, V., Luuk, K., & Leinsalu, M. (1999). Development and psychometric properties of the emotional state questionnaire, a self-report questionnaire for depression and anxiety. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 53, 443–449. doi:10.1080/080394899427692.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagby, M. R., Vachon, D. D., Bulmash, E. L., Toneatto, T., Quilty, L. C., & Costa, P. T. (2007). Pathological gambling and the five-factor model of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 873–880. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.02.011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F. (1997). Esteem threat, self-regulatory breakdown, and emotional distress as factors in self-defeating behaviour. Review of General Psychology, 1, 145–174. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.1.2.145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (1985). Self-esteem and responses to success and failure: Subsequent performance and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality, 53, 450–467. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1985.tb00376.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blaszczynski, A., & McConaghy, N. (1989). Anxiety and/or depression in the pathogenesis of addictive gambling. The International Journal of the Addictions, 24, 337–350.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blaszczynski, A., Steel, Z., & McConaghy, N. (1997). Impulsivity in pathological gambling: The antisocial impulsivist. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 92, 75–87. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1997.tb03639.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blaszczynski, A., Wilson, A. C., & McConaghy, N. (1986). Sensation seeking and pathological gambling. British Journal of Addiction, 81, 113–117. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1986.tb00301.x.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 316–336. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.100.3.316.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, D. (2006). Impulsivity as a mediator in the relationship between depression and problem gambling. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 5–15. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.05.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO five-factor inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, B. J., Yu, N., & Afifi, T. O. (2005). A national survey of gambling problems in Canada. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 50, 213–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham-Williams, R. M., Cottler, L. B., Compton, W. M., & Spitznagel, E. L. (1998). Taking chances: Problem gamblers and mental health disorders: Results from the St. Louis epidemiologic catchment area study. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 1093–1096. doi:10.2105/AJPH.88.7.1093.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • el-Guebaly, N., Patten, S. B., Currie, S., Williams, J. V. A., Beck, C. A., Maxwell, C. J., et al. (2006). Epidemiological associations between gambling behaviour, substance use & mood and anxiety disorders. Journal of Gambling Studies, 22, 275–287.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Estonian Gaming Operator Association. (2009). Retrieved January 23, 2009, from http://www.ehkl.ee/index.php?page=56.

  • Faktum Uuringukeskus. (2004). Elanike kokkupuuted hasart- ja õnnemängudega (Gambling prevalence in Estonia). Tallinn: Faktum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, S. (2000). Measuring the prevalence of sector specific problem gambling: A study of casino patrons. Journal of Gambling Studies, 16, 25–52. doi:10.1023/A:1009479300400.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Getty, H. A., Watson, J. G., & Frisch, R. (2000). A comparison of depression and styles of coping in male and female GA members and controls. Journal of Gambling Studies, 16, 377–391. doi:10.1023/A:1009480106531.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gottfredson, L. (1997). Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life. Intelligence, 24, 79–132. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90014-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths, M. (1999). Gambling technologies: Prospects for problem gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 15, 265–283. doi:10.1023/A:1023053630588.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgins, D. C., Peden, N., & Cassidy, E. (2005). The association between comorbidity and outcome in pathological gambling: A prospective follow-up of recent quitter. Journal of Gambling Studies, 21, 255–271. doi:10.1007/s10899-005-3099-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ibanez, A., Blanco, C., Donahue, E., Lesieur, H. R., de Castro, I. P., Fernandez-Piqueras, J., et al. (2001). Psychiatric comorbidity in pathological gamblers seeking treatment. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1733–1735. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.10.1733.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacques, C., Ladouceur, R., & Ferland, F. (2000). Impact of availability on gambling: A longitudinal study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 45, 810–815.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Westport, CT: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. W., Grant, J. E., Eckert, E. D., Faris, P. L., & Hartman, B. K. (2006). Pathological gambling and mood disorders: Clinical associations and treatment implications. Journal of Affective Disorders, 92, 109–116. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2005.12.040.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuley, N. B., & Jacobs, D. F. (1988). The relationship between dissociative-like experiences and sensation seeking among social and problem gamblers. Journal of Gambling Behavior, 4, 197–207. doi:10.1007/BF01018332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laansoo, S. (2005). Patoloogiline hasartmängimine: ulatus Eestis ning seosed käitumuslike ja isiksuslike riskifaktoritega (Pathological gambling in Estonia and the relationships with behavioural and personal risk factors). Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Tallinn, Estonia.

  • Laansoo, S., & Niit, T. (2008). Gambling in Estonia. In G. Meyer, T. Hayer, & M. Griffiths (Eds.), Problem gambling in Europe extent and preventive efforts. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langewisch, M. W. J., & Frisch, G. R. (1998). Gambling behaviour and pathology in relation to impulsivity, sensation seeking, and risky behaviour in male college students. Journal of Gambling Studies, 14, 245–262. doi:10.1023/A:1022005625498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lesieur, H. R., & Blume, S. B. (1987). The south oaks gambling screen (The SOGS): A new instrument for the identification of pathological gamblers. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1184–1188.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lesieur, H. R., & Blume, S. B. (1993). Revising the south oaks gambling screen in different settings. Journal of Gambling Studies, 9, 213–223. doi:10.1007/BF01015919.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacCallum, F., Blaszczynski, A., Ladouceur, R., & Nower, L. (2007). Functional and dysfunctional impulsivity in pathological gambling. Personality and Individual Differences, 4, 1829–1838. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mõttus, R., Pullmann, H., & Allik, J. (2006). Toward more readable big five personality inventories. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 22, 149–157. doi:10.1027/1015-5759.22.3.149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parke, J., & Griffiths, M. (2006). The psychology of the fruit machine: The role of structural characteristics (Revisited). International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 4, 151–179. doi:10.1007/s11469-006-9014-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, A. M., & Corr, P. J. (2006). Cognitive ability as a buffer to neuroticism: Churchill’s secret weapon? Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 39–51. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.05.012.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petry, N. M., Stinson, F. S., & Grant, B. F. (2005). Comorbidity of DSM-IV pathological gambling and other psychiatric disorders: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 564–574.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pullmann, H., & Allik, J. (2000). The Rosenberg self-esteem scale: its dimensionality, stability and personality correlates in Estonian. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 701–715. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00132-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raven, J. (1981). Manual for Raven’s progressive matrices and mill hill vocabulary scales. Oxford: Oxford Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raven, J. (2000). The Raven’s progressive matrices: Change and stability over culture and time. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 1–48. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0735.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raylu, N., & Oei, T. P. S. (2002). Pathological gambling: A comprehensive review. Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 1009–1061. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(02)00101-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and adolescent child. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scherrer, J. F., Slutske, W. S., Hong, X., Waterman, B., Shah, K. R., Volberg, R., et al. (2007). Factors associated with pathological gambling at 10-year follow-up in a national sample of middle-aged men. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 102, 970–978. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01833.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slutske, W. S., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Poulton, R. (2005). Personality and problem gambling: A prospective study of a birth cohort of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 769–775. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.7.769.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steel, Z., & Blaszczynski, A. (1998). Impulsivity, personality disorders and pathological gambling severity. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 93, 895–905. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.93689511.x.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research. Intelligence, 35, 401–426. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stucki, S., & Rihs-Middel, M. (2007). Prevalence of adult problem and pathological gambling between 2000 and 2005. Journal of Gambling Studies, 23, 245–257. doi:10.1007/s10899-006-9031-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turu-uuringud. (2006). Elanikkonna kokkupuude hasart- ja õnnemängudega (Gambling prevalence in Estonia). Tallinn: Turu-uuringud.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitaro, F., Arsenault, L., & Tremblay, R. E. (1997). Dispositional predictors of problem gambling in male adolescents. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1769–1770.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volberg, R. A. (1994). The prevalence and demographics of pathological gamblers: Implications for public health. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 237–241. doi:10.2105/AJPH.84.2.237.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Welte, J. W., Barnes, G. M., Wieczorek, W. F., Tidwell, M.-C. O., & Parker, J. C. (2004). Risk factors for pathological gambling. Addictive Behaviors, 29, 323–335. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2003.08.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (1993). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. Diagnostic criteria for research. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was partly supported by Estonian Science Foundation Grant no. 7060.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre of Problem Gambling, Liivalaia 21-47, 10118, Tallinn, Estonia

    Pille-Riin Kaare

  2. Institute of Psychology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia

    René Mõttus & Kenn Konstabel

  3. The Estonian Centre of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Tartu, Estonia

    René Mõttus

  4. National Institute for Health Development, Tallinn, Estonia

    Kenn Konstabel

Authors
  1. Pille-Riin Kaare
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. René Mõttus
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kenn Konstabel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Pille-Riin Kaare.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kaare, PR., Mõttus, R. & Konstabel, K. Pathological Gambling in Estonia: Relationships with Personality, Self-Esteem, Emotional States and Cognitive Ability. J Gambl Stud 25, 377–390 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-009-9119-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-009-9119-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation