Abstract
Purpose
Prior research has indicated that several theories might be incorporated to understand perpetration of post-relationship pursuit behaviors (PPBs). However, difficulties coping with relationship loss have not been directly assessed as potential predictors of PPB perpetration, despite their potential relevance. Thus, the present study tests an integrative model to assess whether acceptance or denial-based coping with relationship loss are associated with minor PPBs (e.g., following, excessive contact) and severe PPBs (e.g., aggression) when including prior theoretically relevant variables, such as prior relationship violence (part of coercive control theory) and break-up related distress and rumination (relational goal pursuit theory). Potential differences in predictors of in-person and cyber PPBs are explored, as are moderating effects of gender.
Method
N= 821 undergraduates (59.4% women) who experienced a break-up within the past two years completed measures related to in-person and severe PPBs, coping strategies, prior relationship violence, and relational goal pursuit constructs.
Results
Coping by acceptance was associated with reductions in minor PPBs among men (but not women), whereas coping by denial was associated with increases in minor and severe PPBs across genders, through direct and indirect paths. Supporting prior research, relational goal pursuit was related only to minor PPBs, whereas prior relationship violence was associated with all PPBs, particularly among men. There were few differences in predictors of in-person and cyber PPBs.
Conclusion
Denial over relationship loss may serve as a risk factor for PPB engagement, whereas coping by acceptance may serve a more limited protective role. Additional risk factors remain important to study in future research.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: a meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 217–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004.
Anders, S. L., Frazier, P. A., & Frankfurt, S. B. (2011). Variations in Criterion A and PTSD rates in a community sample of women. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(2), 176–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.08.018.
Brownhalls, J., Duffy, A., Eriksson, L., & Barlow, F. K. (2021). Reintroducing rationalization: a study of relational goal pursuit theory of intimate Partner Obsessive Relational Intrusion. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(13–14), NP6928–NP6950. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518822339.
Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’ too long: consider the brief cope. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327558ijbm0401_6.
Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: a theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267–283. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267.
Chan, E., Viñas-Racionero, M. R., & Scalora, M. J. (2021). Bridging the gap: the predictive roles of emotion dysregulation and stalking-related attitudes on Offline and Online Stalking and Intrusive Harassment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 08862605211043590. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211043590.
Cupach, W. R., Spitzberg, B. H., Bolingbroke, C. M., & Tellitocci, B. S. (2011). Persistence of attempts to reconcile a terminated romantic relationship: a partial test of relational goal Pursuit Theory. Communication Reports, 24(2), 99–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934215.2011.613737.
Cupach, W. R., Spitzberg, B. H., & Carson, C. L. (2000). Toward a theory of obsessive relational intrusion and stalking. In K. Dindia, & S. Duck (Eds.), Communication and personal relationships (pp. 131–146). Wiley.
Dardis, C. M., & Gidycz, C. A. (2017). The frequency and perceived impact of engaging in In-Person and Cyber Unwanted Pursuit after Relationship Break-Up among College Men and Women. Sex Roles, 76(1–2), 56–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0667-1.
Dardis, C. M., & Gidycz, C. A. (2019). Reconciliation or retaliation? An integrative model of postrelationship in-person and cyber unwanted pursuit perpetration among undergraduate men and women. Psychology of Violence, 9(3), 328–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000102.
Davis, K. E., Swan, S. C., & Gambone, L. J. (2012). Why doesn’t he just leave me alone? Persistent pursuit: a critical review of theories and evidence. Sex Roles, 66(5–6), 328–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9882-3.
Dutton, L. B., & Winstead, B. A. (2006). Predicting unwanted pursuit: attachment, relationship satisfaction, relationship alternatives, and break-up distress. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 23(4), 565–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407506065984.
Dutton, M. A., & Goodman, L. A. (2005). Coercion in intimate Partner violence: toward a New Conceptualization. Sex Roles, 52(11–12), 743–756. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-4196-6.
Dye, M. L., & Davis, K. E. (2003). Stalking and psychological abuse: common factors and relationship-specific characteristics. Violence and Victims, 18(2), 163–180. https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.2003.18.2.163.
Edwards, K. M., Camp, E. E., Lim, S., Logan, T. K., Shorey, R. C., & Babchuk, W. (2022). Stalking among sexual and gender minorities: a systematic literature review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 66, 101777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2022.101777.
Espelage, D. L., Leemis, R. W., Niolon, P. H., Kearns, M., Basile, K. C., & Davis, J. P. (2020). Teen dating violence perpetration: protective factor trajectories from Middle to High School among adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence: The Official Journal of the Society for Research on Adolescence, 30(1), 170–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12510.
Fagundes, C. P. (2012). Getting over you: contributions of attachment theory for postbreakup emotional adjustment. Personal Relationships, 19(1), 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01336.x.
Fedina, L., Backes, B. L., Sulley, C., Wood, L., & Busch-Armendariz, N. (2020). Prevalence and sociodemographic factors associated with stalking victimization among college students. Journal of American College Health, 68(6), 624–630. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2019.1583664.
Ferreira, C., & Matos, M. (2013). Post-Relationship Stalking: the experience of victims with and without history of Partner abuse. Journal of Family Violence, 28(4), 393–402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-013-9501-5.
Fox, K. A., Nobles, M. R., & Fisher, B. S. (2011). Method behind the madness: an examination of stalking measurements. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(1), 74–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2010.12.004.
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2009). Acceptance and commitment therapy. American Psychological Association.
Hollenbaugh, K. M. H., Strauss, L. M., Feldmann, T. M., Oyeniyi, O., & Vashisht, K. (2020). An exploration of counselors’ beliefs and approaches for relationship loss. Journal of Loss & Trauma, 25(2), 159–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2019.1664126.
Johnson, E. F., & Thompson, C. M. (2016). Factors associated with stalking persistence. Psychology Crime & Law, 22(9), 879–902. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2016.1197225.
Kaukinen, C. (2014). Dating violence among College students: the risk and protective factors. Trauma Violence & Abuse, 15(4), 283–296. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014521321.
Kendler, K. S., Hettema, J. M., Butera, F., Gardner, C. O., & Prescott, C. A. (2003). Life event dimensions of loss, humiliation, Entrapment, and Danger in the prediction of onsets of Major Depression and generalized anxiety. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(8), 789. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.8.789.
Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling, Fourth Edition. Guilford Publications.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2012). Gender and stalking: current intersections and future directions. Sex Roles, 66(5–6), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0093-3.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., & Palarea, R. (2006). Unwanted pursuit behavior inventory-offender. In M. P. Thompson, K. C. Basile, M. F. Hertz, & D. Sitterle (Eds.), Measuring intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization: a compendium of assessment tools (1st ed., pp. 148–149). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., Palarea, R. E., Cohen, J., & Rohling, M. L. (2000). Breaking up is hard to do: unwanted pursuit behaviors following the dissolution of a romantic relationship. Violence and Victims, 15(1), 73–90. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.15.1.73.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping (11(.). Springer. [print.]).
Littleton, H., Horsley, S., John, S., & Nelson, D. V. (2007). Trauma coping strategies and psychological distress: a meta-analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(6), 977–988. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20276.
Logan, T., & Cole, J. (2011). Exploring the intersection of Partner Stalking and sexual abuse. Violence Against Women, 17(7), 904–924. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211412715.
Logan, T., Shannon, L., & Cole, J. (2007). Stalking victimization in the context of intimate Partner violence. Violence and Victims, 22(6), 669–683. https://doi.org/10.1891/088667007782793147.
Logan, T., & Walker, R. (2009). Civil protective order outcomes: violations and perceptions of effectiveness. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(4), 675–692. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508317186.
McDonald, R. P., & Marsh, H. W. (1990). Choosing a multivariate model: noncentrality and goodness of fit. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 247–255. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.247.
Meade, A. W., & Craig, S. B. (2012). Identifying careless responses in survey data. Psychological Methods, 17(3), 437–455. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028085.
Ménard, K. S., & Pincus, A. L. (2012). Predicting overt and Cyber stalking perpetration by male and female College students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(11), 2183–2207. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511432144.
Nesset, M. B., Lara-Cabrera, M. L., Bjørngaard, J. H., Whittington, R., & Palmstierna, T. (2020). Cognitive behavioural group therapy versus mindfulness-based stress reduction group therapy for intimate partner violence: a randomized controlled trial. Bmc Psychiatry, 20(1), 178. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02582-4.
Nguyen, L. K., Spitzberg, B. H., & Lee, C. M. (2012). Coping with obsessive relational intrusion and stalking: the role of Social Support and coping strategies. Violence and Victims, 27(3), 414–433. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.27.3.414.
Rollie, S. S., & Duck, S. (2006). Divorce and dissolution of romantic Relationships: Stage Models and their Limitations. In M. A. Fine, & J. H. Harvey (Eds.), Handbook of divorce and relationship dissolution (pp. 223–240). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: an R Package for Structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02.
Senkans, S., McEwan, T. E., & Ogloff, J. R. P. (2021). Assessing the link between intimate Partner Violence and Postrelationship Stalking: a gender-inclusive study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(1–2), NP772–NP802. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517734859.
Sheridan, L., & Lyndon, A. E. (2012). The influence of prior relationship, gender, and fear on the Consequences of stalking victimization. Sex Roles, 66(5–6), 340–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9889-9.
Smith, S. G., Basile, K. C., & Kresnow, M. (2022). The national intimate Partner and sexual violence survey: 2016/2017 report on stalking—updated release (p. 32). National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Spitzberg, B. H., Cupach, W. R., Hannawa, A. F., & Crowley, J. P. (2014). A preliminary test of a relational goal pursuit theory of obsessive relational intrusion and stalking. Studies in Communication Sciences, 14(1), 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scoms.2014.03.007.
Stark, E. (2007). Coercive control: how men entrap women in personal life. Oxford University Press.
Straus, M. A., & Douglas, E. M. (2004). A short form of the revised conflict tactics Scales, and Typologies for Severity and Mutuality. Violence and Victims, 19(5), 507–520. https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.19.5.507.63686.
Stroebe, M., Boelen, P. A., van den Hout, M., Stroebe, W., Salemink, E., & van den Bout, J. (2007). Ruminative coping as avoidance. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 257(8), 462–472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-007-0746-y.
Tamres, L. K., Janicki, D., & Helgeson, V. S. (2002). Sex differences in coping behavior: a Meta-Analytic Review and an examination of relative coping. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(1), 2–30. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0601_1.
Tassy, F., & Winstead, B. (2014). Relationship and individual characteristics as predictors of unwanted pursuit. Journal of Family Violence, 29(2), 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-013-9573-2.
Thompson, C. M., Dennison, S. M., & Stewart, A. (2012). Are female stalkers more violent Than Male Stalkers? Understanding gender differences in stalking violence using contemporary sociocultural beliefs. Sex Roles, 66(5–6), 351–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9911-2.
Winer, E. S., Bryant, J., McKinney, C., Nadorff, M. R., Cervone, D., & Liu, R. T. (2016). Distinguishing Mediational models and analyses in clinical psychology: Atemporal Associations do not imply causation. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 72(9), 947–955. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22298.
Zarling, A., Bannon, S., & Berta, M. (2019). Evaluation of acceptance and commitment therapy for domestic violence offenders. Psychology of Violence, 9(3), 257–266. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000097.
Zarling, A., Lawrence, E., & Marchman, J. (2015). A randomized controlled trial of acceptance and commitment therapy for aggressive behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(1), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037946.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The author declares that they have no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Dardis, C.M. Coping with Relationship Loss by Denial and Acceptance: Direct and Indirect Associations with Engagement in Post-Relationship Pursuit Behaviors Among College Men and Women. J Fam Viol 38, 1663–1676 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-022-00482-7
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-022-00482-7