Abstract
Gender-based violence is associated with an array of negative health outcomes for women and limits their opportunities to fully participate in society. Only recently have studies begun to explore the interconnectedness of emotional, physical and sexual gender-based violence. This qualitative study sought to understand how men and women in Senegal perceive various forms of gender-based violence, their connections, and who could best promote change among perpetrators of violence. Community focus group discussions that used structured exercises adapted from Participatory Learning and Action group activities were carried out in urban and rural settings in seven regions of Senegal. Groups were sampled for maximum variation within rural and urban settings in each region (n = 28 groups and n = 267 participants). Male and female groups in both urban and rural settings described each form of violence similarly. Examples of emotional violence centered around home finances, neglect, and dependency. Emotional violence between male and female spouses escalated to physically and sexually violent behaviors, uniquely directed at women and girls. Physical violence was described in two levels: acceptable and unacceptable. Sexual violence was described as common within households but unreported. Economic considerations cross-cut each form of violence. The findings from this study contribute to conceptual definitions and understandings of GBV from a community perspective to better inform programmatic and communication approaches for the reduction of GBV in Senegal. Challenges will remain until the global community can more effectively address equitable access to financial resources among the world’s poorest.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrahams, N., Devries, K., Watts, C., Pallitto, C., Petzold, M., Shamu, S., & García-Moreno, C. (2014). Worldwide prevalence of non-partner sexual violence: A systematic review. The Lancet, 383(9929), 1648–1654. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62243-6.
Abramsky, T., Watts, C. H., Garcia-Moreno, C., Devries, K., Kiss, L., Ellsberg, M., Jansen, H. A. F. M., & Heise, L. (2011). What factors are associated with recent intimate partner violence? Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence. BMC Public Health, 11(109). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-109.
Appel, K., Buckingham, E., Jodoin, K., Roth, D. (2012). Participatory learning and action toolkit: For application in BSR’s global programs.
Buchmann, N., Field, E., Glennerster, R., Nazneen, S., Pimkina, S., Sen, I., … Bhaskar, M. (2017). Power vs money: Alternative approaches to reducing child marriage in Bangladesh, a randomized control trial. Retrieved from https://www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/publications/100_child-marriage-bangladesh-Apr2017.pdf. Accessed 8 April, 2019.
Campbell, J. C. (2002). Health consequences of intimate partner violence. The Lancet, 359(9314), 1331–1336. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08336-8.
Chiang, L., Howard, A., Gleckel, J., Ogoti, C., Karlsson, J., Hynes, M., & Mwangi, M. (2018). Cycle of violence among young Kenyan women: The link between childhood violence and adult physical intimate partner violence in a population-based survey. Child Abuse & Neglect, 84, 45–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.07.010.
Devries, K. M., Mak, J. Y., Bacchus, L. J., Child, J. C., Falder, G., Petzold, M., … Watts, C. H. (2013). Intimate partner violence and incident depressive symptoms and suicide attempts: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. PLoS Medicine, 10, e1001439. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001439
DHS. (2012). Enquête Démographique et de Santé à Indicateurs Multiples Sénégal (EDS-MICS) 2010–2011. Claverton, Maryland, USA: Agence Nationale de la Statistique et de la Démographie - ANSD/Sénégal and ICF International. Retrieved from http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR258/FR258.pdf. Accessed 8 April 2019.
Durevall, D., & Lindskog, A. (2015). Intimate partner violence and HIV in ten sub-Saharan African countries: What do the demographic and health surveys tell us? The Lancet Global Health, 3(1), e34–e43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70343-2.
Ellsberg, M., & Emmelin, M. (2014). Intimate partner violence and mental health. Global Health Action, 7. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v7.25658.
Ellsberg, M., Jansen, H. A., Heise, L., Watts, C. H., & Garcia-Moreno, C. (2008). Intimate partner violence and women’s physical and mental health in the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence: An observational study. The Lancet, 371(9619), 1165–1172. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60522-X.
Faramarzi, M., Esmailzadeh, S., & Mosavi, S. (2005). A comparison of abused and non-abused women’s definitions of domestic violence and attitudes to acceptance of male dominance. European Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 122(2), 225–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2004.11.047.
Fawole, O. I. (2008). Economic violence to women and girls: Is it receiving the necessary attention? Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 9(3), 167–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838008319255.
Fawole, O. I., Ajuwon, A. J., & Osungbade, K. O. (2005). Evaluation of interventions to prevent gender-based violence among young female apprentices in Ibadan, Nigeria. Health Education, 105(3), 186–203. https://doi.org/10.1108/09654280510595254.
Fleming, P. J., Gruskin, S., Rojo, F., & Dworkin, S. L. (2015a). Men’s violence against women and men are inter-related: Recommendations for simultaneous intervention. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 146, 249–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.10.021.
Fleming, P. J., McCleary-Sills, J., Morton, M., Levtov, R., Heilman, B., & Barker, G. (2015b). Risk factors for men’s lifetime perpetration of physical violence against intimate partners: Results from the international men and gender equality survey (IMAGES) in eight countries. PLoS One, 10(3), e0118639. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118639
Fry, D. A., & Elliott, S. P. (2017). Understanding the linkages between violence against women and violence against children. The Lancet, 5, e472–e473 Retrieved from https://ac.els-cdn.com/S2214109X17301535/1-s2.0-S2214109X17301535-main.pdf?_tid=f2b34032-11aa-11e8-ad19-00000aab0f26&acdnat=1518628835_ae0b9dd54bb480bd31a70beceff14e81. Accessed 8 April 2019.
Fulu, E., Miedema, S., Roselli, T., McCook, S., Chan, K. L., Haardörfer, R., Jewkes, R., Fulu, E., Jewkes, R., Warner, X., Miedema, S., Roselli, T., Lang, J., Naved, R. T., Huque, H., Farah, S., Shuvra, M. M. R., Erken, A., Xiangxian, W., Gang, F., Hongtao, L., Mudrovcic, Z., Hua, W., Hoekman, A., Nikulainen, E., Coquelin, B., Khan, M., Kusuma, W., Manero, C. M., Larsen, F., Fulu, E., Warner, X., Moussavi, S., de Mel, N., Peiris, P., Gomez, S., Team, S. I., Jinadasa, K., Jewkes, R., Sikweyiya, Y., Shai, N., Drapuluvik-Tinabar, F., Magoola, P., Agyenta, A., Shanahan, T., Vienings, T., Jewkes, R., Garcia-Moreno, C., Naved, R. T., Jinadasa, K., Vienings, T., Kusuma, W., Jewkes, R., Connell, R., Barker, G., Greig, A., Roy, R., Verma, R., Sen, K. M., & Johnson, S. (2017). Pathways between childhood trauma, intimate partner violence, and harsh parenting: Findings from the UN multi-country study on men and violence in Asia and the Pacific. The Lancet Global Health, 5(5), e512–e522. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30103-1.
Garcia-Moreno, C., Jansen, H. A., Ellsberg, M., Heise, L., & Watts, C. H. (2006). Prevalence of intimate partner violence: Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence. The Lancet, 368(9543), 1260–1269. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69523-8.
Guedes, A., Bott, S., Garcia-Moreno, C., & Colombini, M. (2016). Bridging the gaps: A global review of intersections of violence against women and violence against children. Global Health Action, 9. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v9.31516.
Halcomb, E. J., & Davidson, P. M. (2006). Is verbatim transcription of interview data always necessary? Applied Nursing Research, 19(1), 38–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APNR.2005.06.001.
Heise, L. L. (2011). What works to prevent partner violence? An evidence overview (version 2.0). London: Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/derec/49872444.pdf. Accessed 8 April 2019.
Hillis, S., Mercy, J., Amobi, A., & Kress, H. (2016). Global prevalence of past-year violence against children: A systematic review and minimum estimates. Pediatrics. Retrieved from http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2016/01/25/peds.2015-4079.abstract , 137, e20154079. Accessed 8 April 2019.
Jewkes, R. (2002). Intimate partner violence: Causes and prevention. The Lancet, 359(9315), 1423–1429. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08357-5.
Kalmuss, D. S., & Straus, M. A. (1982). Wife’s marital dependency and wife abuse. Journal of Marriage and Family, 44(2), 277–286. https://doi.org/10.2307/351538.
Kayibanda, J. F., Bitera, R., & Alary, M. (2012). Violence toward women, men’s sexual risk factors, and HIV infection among women: Findings from a National Household Survey in Rwanda. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 59(3). Retrieved from https://journals.lww.com/jaids/Fulltext/2012/03010/Violence_Toward_Women,_Men_s_Sexual_Risk_Factors,.12.aspx), 300–307. Accessed 8 April 2019.
Kishor, S., & Bradley, S. E. K. (2012). Women’s and men’s experience of spousal violence in two African countries: Does gender matter? . DHS Analytical Studies No. 27 . Calverton, Maryland: ICF International . Retrieved from http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/AS27/AS27.pdf. Accessed 8 April 2019.. Accessed 8 April 2019.
Lansford, J. E., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2012). Childrearing discipline and violence in developing countries. Child Development, 83(1), 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01676.x.
Ludermir, A. B., Schraiber, L. B., D’Oliveira, A. F. P. L., França-Junior, I., & Jansen, H. A. (2008). Violence against women by their intimate partner and common mental disorders. Social Science & Medicine, 66(4), 1008–1018. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOCSCIMED.2007.10.021.
MacQuarrie, K., Winter, R., & Kishor, S. (2014). Spousal violence in sub-Saharan Africa: Structure, forms, and levels. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.2810.7522.
Maxwell, L., Devries, K., Zionts, D., Alhusen, J. L., & Campbell, J. (2015). Estimating the effect of intimate partner violence on women’s use of contraception: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 10, e0118234. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118234.
Mayoux, L. (2005). Participatory action learning system (PALS): Impact assessment for civil society development and grassroots-based advocacy in Anandi, India. Journal of International Development, 17(2), 211–242. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1211.
Michau, L., Horn, J., Bank, A, Dutt, M., & Zimmerman, C. (2015). Prevention of violence against women and girls: Lessons from practice. The Lancet, 385(9978), 1672–1684. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61797-9.
Namy, S., Carlson, C., Norcini Pala, A., Faris, D., Knight, L., Allen, E., Devries, K., & Naker, D. (2017). Gender, violence and resilience among Ugandan adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 70, 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.015.
Papa, M. J., Singhal, A., Ghanekar, D. V., & Papa, W. H. (2000). Organizing for social change through cooperative action. Communication Theory, 10(1), 90–123. Retrieved from. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2000.tb00181.x.
Raj, A., Ghule, M., Ritter, J., Battala, M., Gajanan, V., Nair, S., Dasgupta, A., Silverman, J. G., Balaiah, D., & Saggurti, N. (2016). Cluster randomized controlled trial evaluation of a gender equity and family planning intervention for married men and couples in rural India. PLoS One, 11(5), e0153190. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153190.
Silverman, J. G., & Raj, A. (2014). Intimate partner violence and reproductive coercion: Global barriers to Women’s reproductive control. PLoS Medicine, 11(9), e1001723. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001723.
Thorne, S. E. (2008). Interpretive description. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
Tolman, R. M., & Wang, H. C. (2005). Domestic violence and women’s employment: Fixed effects models of three waves of women’s employment study data. American Journal of Community Psychology, 36(1), 147–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-005-6239-0.
Tong, A., Sainsbury, P., & Craig, J. (2008). Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): A 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. International Journal for Quality in Health Care : Journal of the International Society for Quality in Health Care / ISQua, 19, 349–357. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzm042.
Underwood, C., Brown, J., Sherard, D., Tushabe, B., & Abdur-Rahman, A. (2011). Reconstructing gender norms through ritual communication: A study of African transformation. Journal of Communication, 61, 197–218. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01537.x.
UNDP. (2018). International human development indicators. Retrieved March 12, 2018, from http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/SEN.
Uthman, O. A., Moradi, T., & Lawoko, S. (2009). The independent contribution of individual-, neighbourhood-, and country-level socioeconomic position on attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women in sub-Saharan Africa: A multilevel model of direct and moderating effects. Social Science & Medicine, 68(10), 1801–1809. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOCSCIMED.2009.02.045.
Vyas, S., & Watts, C. (2009). How does economic empowerment affect women’s risk of intimate partner violence in low and middle income countries? A systematic review of published evidence. Journal of International Development, 21(5), 577–602. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.1500.
WHO. (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner and non-partner sexual violence. Geneva.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Werwie, T.R., Hildon, Z.JL., Camara, A.D. et al. Gender-Based Violence in Senegal: its Catalysts and Connections from a Community Perspective. J Fam Viol 34, 769–780 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-019-00058-y
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-019-00058-y