Abstract
This study considers the characteristics associated with mothers and fathers who maltreat their child and each other in comparison to parents who only maltreat their child. One hundred and sixty-two parents who had allegations of child maltreatment made against them were considered. The sample consisted of 43 fathers (Paternal Family—PF) and 23 mothers (Maternal Family—MF) who perpetrated both partner and child maltreatment, together with 23 fathers (Paternal Child—PC) and 26 mothers (Maternal Child—MC) who perpetrated child maltreatment only. In addition, 2 fathers (Paternal Victim—PV) and 23 mothers (Maternal Victim—MV) were victims of intimate partner maltreatment and perpetrators of child maltreatment and 7 fathers (Paternal Non-abusive Carer—PNC) and 15 mothers (Maternal Non-abusive Carer—MNC) did not maltreat the child but lived with an individual who did. Within their family unit, 40.7% of parents perpetrated both intimate partner and child maltreatment. However, fathers were significantly more likely to maltreat both their partner and child than mothers and mothers were significantly more likely to be victims of intimate partner violence than fathers. PF fathers conducted the highest amount of physical and/or sexual child maltreatment while MC and MV mothers perpetrated the highest amount of child neglect. Few significant differences between mothers were found. PF fathers had significantly more factors associated with development of a criminogenic lifestyle than PC fathers. Marked sex differences were demonstrated with PF fathers demonstrating significantly more antisocial characteristics, less mental health problems and fewer feelings of isolation than MF mothers. MC mothers had significantly more childhood abuse, mental health problems, parenting risk factors and were significantly more likely to be biologically related to the child than PC fathers. This study suggests that violent families should be assessed and treated in a holistic manner, considering the effects of partner violence upon all family members, rather than exclusively intervening with the violent man.
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Requests for reprints should be sent to Louise Dixon, Center for Forensic and Family Psychology, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
Appendix
Appendix
Coding Dictionary
Type of child and partner maltreatment (definitions were taken from Browne and Herbert 1997).
Physical—tissue injury (scratches, bruising, burns, welts) broken bones (including fractures and dislocations), and/or damage to internal organs
Sexual—inappropriate sexual touching, invitations and/or exhibitionism, inappropriate non-penetrative sexual interaction (digital penetration, fondling, masturbation), attempted, actual, anal or vaginal penetration, incest, coerced or forced penetration.
Neglect (child only)—withholding love and affection, non-organic failure to gain weight/thrive, frequent unavailability of parent or guardian
Psychological—verbal assault, denigration, humiliation, scapegoating, confusing atmosphere, rejection, withholding of food and drink, enforced isolation and restriction of movement.
Physically/sexually abused as a child
Record as present if the parent discloses that they were physically and/or sexually abused during their childhood (prior to 16 years of age)
Factors associated with juvenile delinquency
Juvenile substance abuse—Record as present if they used alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, heroin, amphetamine or other illegal drugs during their adolescence.
Fighting with peers at school—Record as present if there is evidence of them getting in several fights during their school years (3 or more).
Criminal history
Conviction for violent/sexual offence—record as present if the parent has received one or more criminal convictions for a violent and/or sexual offence.
Conviction for non-violent criminal offence—record as present if the parent has received 1 or more conviction for theft, fraud or driving offences
Adult dependency for drugs or alcohol
Record as present if the parent disclosed during interview and/or professional reports stated that they had a dependency for alcohol, cannabis, cocaine heroin amphetamine or other illegal drugs during adulthood.
Relationship History
Involvement in a past violent relationship/s—record as present if the parent discloses/stated in professional reports, that they have been physically/sexually abusive, physically or sexually abused or involved in reciprocal physical and/or sexual abuse in a past romantic relationship/s. Romantic relationship is defined by the parents perception/disclosure that a level of romantic and intimate attachment existed with that person.
Current relationship difficulties—record as present if the parent discloses frequent arguing or feels that the partner is not supportive or does not provide enough care in the relationship, or if it was stated in professional reports.
Mental health factors
Previous suicide attempt/ideation—record as present if the parent has attempted/ruminated about committing suicide in the past, or during/immediately after the index offence
Treated for mental illness/depression—code as present if the parent discloses a history of being treated for mental illness or depression
MCMI-III: Cluster A (odd/eccentric)—code as present if the parent scores a base rate of 75 or over on the Schizoid (1); Schizotypal (S); Paranoid (P) sub-scales.
MCMI-III: Cluster B (dramatic/emotional)—code as present if the parent scores a base rate of 75 or over on the Histrionic (4); Antisocial (6a); Narcissistic (5); Borderline (C) sub-scales.
MCMI-III: Cluster C (anxious/fearful)—code as present if the parent scores a base rate of 75 or over on the Avoidant (2a); Dependent (3); Compulsive (7) sub-scales.
Presence of a severe clinical syndrome—code as present if the parent scores a base rate of 75 or over on the following severe clinical syndromes; Thought disorder (SS); Major depression (CC); Delusional disorder (PP).
Parenting risk factors
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1.
Static
Under 21 at child’s birth—code as present if the parent was under 21 years of age at the time of the child’s birth
Not biologically related to the index child—code as present if the parent is not biologically related to the index child
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2.
Dynamic
Residing with a violent adult—code as present if the parent is a known violent adult or is living with a known violent adult (i.e. that person has convictions for violence, or it is disclosed that they have been violent to past romantic partners, acquaintances, strangers or children).
Feelings of isolation—code as present if the parent discloses that they felt isolated with no one to turn to
Serious financial difficulties—code as present if the parent discloses/stated in professional reports that they experienced serious financial difficulties (not being able to make payments for basic needs such as food or rent or parenting equipment).
Single parenthood—code as present if the parents discloses that they are bringing up the index child or children on their own, without the help of a partner. NB: just because an individual discloses they are having a romantic intimate relationship with a partner does not mean that they perceive that partner to have an active role/responsibility to bring up the child.
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3.
Child
Index child has a physical or mental disability—code as present if the index child has a diagnosed mental or physical disability
Parenting risk factors—checklist score
Total Index of Need score
Record the presence of each risk factor below from the file information. If a risk factor is present, the score specified in brackets next to each factor is awarded. A Total Index of Need score is derived and recorded (maximum score of 25).
Single parent (3)
Mother or partner under 21 years of age (1)
Mother or partner not biologically related to child (1)
Mother or partner physically and/or sexually abused as a child (2)
Twins or less that 18 months between births (1)
Complications during birth/separated from baby at birth (1)
Infant seriously ill, premature or weighed under 2.5 kg at birth (2)
Child with physical or mental disabilities (1)
Feelings of isolation (1)
Serious Financial Problems (2)
Mother or partner treated for mental illness or depression (2)
Dependency for drugs or Alcohol (2)
Adult in the household with violent tendencies (3)
Mother or partner feeling indifferent about their baby (3)
Parenting stress factors—psychometric data
Parenting Stress Index: Child domain—code as present if the parent achieves a percentile score of 75 or above
Parenting Stress Index: Attachment—code as present if the parent achieves a percentile score of 75 or above
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Dixon, L., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C., Browne, K. et al. The Co-occurrence of Child and Intimate Partner Maltreatment in the Family: Characteristics of the Violent Perpetrators. J Fam Viol 22, 675–689 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9115-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9115-x